Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands are glands that secrete their product, (hormones), directly into the blood rather than through a duct. This group contains the glands of the Endocrine system. The main Endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, the pancreas,the ovaries, the testes, the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. Other organs which are not so well known for their endocrine activity include the stomach, which produces such hormones as ghrelin.

The pituitary gland hangs from the base of the brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It consists of a hormone-producing glandular portion (anterior pituitary) and a neural portion (posterior pituitary), which is an extension of the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus a) regulates the hormonal output of the anterior pituitary via releasing and inhibiting hormones and b) synthesizes two hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary of storage and later release.

1. Endocrine organs are ductless, well-vascularized glands that release hormones directly into the blood or lymph. They are small and widely separated in the body.

2. The major endocrine organs are the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus glands, as well as the pancreas and gonads. The hypothalamus is a neuroendocrine organ.

3. Local chemical messengers, not generally considered part of the endocrine system, include autocrines, which act on the cells that secrete them, and paracrines, which act on a different cell type nearby.

Chemistry:

1. Most hormones are steroids or amino acid based.

2. Hormones alter cell activity by stimulating or inhibiting characteristic cellular processes of their target cells.

3. Cell responses to hormone stimulation may involve changes in membrane permeability; enzyme synthesis, activation, or inhibition; secretory activity; gene activation; and mitosis.

4. Second-messenger mechanisms employing intracellular messengers and transduced by G proteins are a common means by which amino acid–based hormones interact with their target cells. In the cyclic AMP system, the hormone binds to a plasma membrane receptor that couples to a G protein. When the G protein is activated it, in turn, couples to adenylate cyclase, which catalyzes the synthesis of cyclic AMP from ATP. Cyclic AMP initiates reactions that activate protein kinases and other enzymes, leading to cellular response. The PIP-calcium signal mechanism, involving phosphatidyl inositol, is another important second-messenger system. Other second messengers are cyclic GMP and calcium.

5. Steroid hormones (and thyroid hormone) enter their target cells and effect responses by activating DNA, which initiates messenger RNA formation leading to protein synthesis.

Target Cell Specificity:

6. The ability of a target cell to respond to a hormone depends on the presence of receptors, within the cell or on its plasma membrane, to which the hormone can bind.

7. Hormone receptors are dynamic structures. Changes in number and sensitivity of hormone receptors may occur in response to high or low levels of stimulating hormones.

8. Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between secretion and degradation/excretion. The liver and kidneys are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products are excreted in urine and feces.

9. Hormone half-life and duration of activity are limited and vary from hormone to hormone.

Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells:

10. Permissiveness is the situation in which a hormone cannot exert its full effects without the presence of another hormone.

11. Synergism occurs when two or more hormones produce the same effects in a target cell and their results are amplified.

12. Antagonism occurs when a hormone opposes or reverses the effect of another hormone.

Control of Hormone Release13. Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli. Negative feedback is important in regulating hormone levels in the blood.

14. The nervous system, acting through hypothalamic controls, can in certain cases override or modulate hormonal effects.

Major Endocrine Organs The Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis):1. The pituitary gland hangs from the base of the brain by a stalk and is enclosed by bone. It consists of a hormone-producing glandular portion (anterior pituitary) and a neural portion (posterior pituitary), which is an extension of the hypothalamus.

2. The hypothalamus (a) regulates the hormonal output of the anterior pituitary via releasing and inhibiting hormones and (b) synthesizes two hormones that it exports to the posterior pituitary for storage and later release.

3. Four of the six adenohypophyseal hormones are tropic hormones that regulate the function of other endocrine organs. Most anterior pituitary hormones exhibit a diurnal rhythm of release, which is subject to modification by stimuli influencing the hypothalamus.

4. Growth hormone (GH) is an anabolic hormone that stimulates growth of all body tissues but especially skeletal muscle and bone. It may act directly, or indirectly via insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). GH mobilizes fats, stimulates protein synthesis, and inhibits glucose uptake and metabolism. Secretion is regulated by growth hormone– releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH), or somatostatin. Hypersecretion causes gigantism in children and acromegaly in adults; hyposecretion in children causes pituitary dwarfism.

5. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes normal development and activity of the thyroid gland. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates its release; negative feedback of thyroid hormone inhibits it.

6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids. ACTH release is triggered by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and inhibited by rising glucocorticoid levels.

7. The gonadotropins—follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)—regulate the functions of the gonads in both sexes. FSH stimulates sex cell production; LH stimulates gonadal hormone production. Gonadotropin levels rise in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Negative feedback of gonadal hormones inhibits gonadotropin release.

8. Prolactin (PRL) promotes milk production in humans. Its secretion is prompted by prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) and inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH).

9. The neurohypophysis stores and releases two hypothalamic hormones, oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

10. Oxytocin stimulates powerful uterine contractions, which trigger labor and delivery of an infant, and milk ejection in nursing women. Its release is mediated reflexively by the hypothalamus and represents a positive feedback mechanism.

11. Antidiuretic hormone stimulates the kidney tubules to reabsorb and conserve water, resulting in small volumes of highly concentrated urine and decreased plasma osmolality. ADH is released in response to high solute concentrations in the blood and inhibited by low solute concentrations in the blood. Hyposecretion results in diabetes insipidus.

The Thyroid Gland12. The thyroid gland is located in the anterior throat. Thyroid follicles store colloid containing thyroglobulin, a glycoprotein from which thyroid hormone is derived.

13. Thyroid hormone (TH) includes thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which increase the rate of cellular metabolism. Consequently, oxygen use and heat production rise.

14. Secretion of thyroid hormone, prompted by TSH, requires reuptake of the stored colloid by the follicle cells and splitting of the hormones from the colloid for release. Rising levels of thyroid hormone feed back to inhibit the pituitary and hypothalamus.

15. Most T4 is converted to T3 (the more active form) in the target tissues. These hormones act by turning on gene transcription and protein synthesis.

16. Graves’ disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism; hyposecretion causes cretinism in infants and myxedema in adults.

17. Calcitonin, produced by the parafollicular (C) cells of the thyroid gland in response to rising blood calcium levels, depresses blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone matrix resorption and enhancing calcium deposit in bone.• Endocrine System; Topic: The Hypothalamic–Pituitary Axis.

The Parathyroid Glands18. The parathyroid glands, located on the dorsal aspect of the thyroid gland, secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which causes an increase in blood calcium levels by targeting bone, the intestine, and the kidneys. PTH is the antagonist of calcitonin.

19. PTH release is triggered by falling blood calcium levels and is inhibited by rising blood calcium levels.

20. Hyperparathyroidism results in hypercalcemia and all its effects and in extreme bone wasting. Hypoparathyroidism leads to hypocalcemia, evidenced by tetany and respiratory paralysis.

The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands21. The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands sit atop the kidneys. Each adrenal gland has two functional portions, the cortex and the medulla.

22. Three groups of steroid hormones are produced by the cortex from cholesterol.

23. Mineralocorticoids (primarily aldosterone) regulate sodium ion reabsorption and potassium ion excretion by the kidneys. Sodium ion reabsorption leads to water reabsorption, and increases in blood volume and blood pressure. Release of aldosterone is stimulated by the renin-angiotensin mechanism, rising potassium ion or falling sodium levels in the blood, and ACTH. Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits aldosterone release.

24. Glucocorticoids (primarily cortisol) are important metabolic hormones that help the body resist stressors by increasing blood glucose, fatty acid and amino acid levels, and blood pressure. High levels of glucocorticoids depress the immune system and the inflammatory response. ACTH is the major stimulus for glucocorticoid release.

25. Gonadocorticoids (mainly androgens) are produced in small amounts throughout life.

26. Hypoactivity of the adrenal cortex results in Addison’s disease. Hypersecretion can result in aldosteronism, Cushing’s syndrome, and adrenogenital syndrome.

27. The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) in response to sympathetic nervous system stimulation. Its catecholamines enhance and prolong the fight-or-flight response to short-term stressors. Hypersecretion leads to symptoms typical of sympathetic nervous system overactivity.

• Endocrine System; Topic: Response to Stress.The Pancreas28. The pancreas, located in the abdomen close to the stomach, is both an exocrine and an endocrine gland. The endocrine portion (pancreatic islets) releases insulin and glucagon and smaller amounts of other hormones to the blood.

29. Glucagon, released by alpha (α) cells when blood levels of glucose are low, stimulates the liver to release glucose to the blood.

30. Insulin is released by beta (β) cells when blood levels of glucose (and amino acids) are rising. It increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism by most body cells. Hyposecretion of insulin results in diabetes mellitus; cardinal signs are polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia.• Endocrine System; Topic: The Actions of Hormones on Target Cells.The Gonads31. The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity, release two main hormones. Secretion of estrogens by the ovarian follicles begins at puberty under the influence of FSH. Estrogens stimulate maturation of the female reproductive system and development of the secondary sex characteristics. Progesterone is released in response to high blood levels of LH. It works with estrogens in establishing the menstrual cycle.

32. The testes of the male begin to produce testosterone at puberty in response to LH. Testosterone promotes maturation of the male reproductive organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, and production of sperm by the testes.

The Pineal Gland33. The pineal gland is located in the diencephalon. Its primary hormone is melatonin, which influences daily rhythms and may have an antigonadotropic effect in humans.

The Thymus34. The thymus gland, located in the upper thorax, declines in size and function with age. Its hormones, thymosins, thymic factor, and thymopoietins, are important to the normal development of the immune response.

Other Hormone-Producing Structures1. Many body organs not normally considered endocrine organs contain isolated cell clusters that secrete hormones. Examples include the heart (atrial natriuretic peptide); gastrointestinal tract organs (gastrin, secretin, and others); the placenta (hormones of pregnancy—estrogen, progesterone, and others); the kidneys (erythropoietin and renin); skin (cholecalciferol); and adipose tissue (leptin and resistin).Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System1. Endocrine glands derive from all three germ layers. Those derived from mesoderm produce steroidal hormones; the others produce the amino acid–based hormones.2. The natural decrease in function of the female’s ovaries during late middle age results in menopause.3. The efficiency of all endocrine glands seems to decrease gradually as aging occurs. This leads to a generalized increase in the incidence of diabetes mellitus and a lower metabolic rate.

External links

*