Yamato-damashii

is a historically and culturally loaded word in the Japanese language. The phrase was coined in the Heian period for an indigenous 'spirit' which was shown to best light when polished by 'Chinese learning'. Later, a qualitative contrast between Japanese and Chinese spirit was elicited from the term. Edo period writers and samurai used it to gloss the Bushido concept of 'valor'. Japanese nationalists propagandized "Yamato-damashii" - 'the brave, daring, and indomitable spirit of Japanese people' - as one of the key Japanese military-political doctrines in the Showa period. English translations of "Yamato-damashii" include the 'Japanese spirit', 'Japanese soul', 'Yamato spirit', and 'The Soul of Old Japan'. Lafcadio Hearn mentions the latter in connection with Shinto.

'For this national type of moral character was invented the name "Yamato-damashi" (or "Yamato-gokoro"), — the Soul of Yamato (or Heart of Yamato), — the appellation of the old province of Yamato, seat of the early emperors, being figuratively used for the entire country. We might correctly, though less literally, interpret the expression "Yamato-damashi" as 'The Soul of Old Japan.' (1904:177)

Origin of the term

Originally "Yamato-damashi" did not bear the bellicose weight or ideological timbre that it assumed in modern Japan. It first occurs in the "Otome" (乙女) section of Genji Monogatari (ch.21), as a native virtue which flourishes best, not as a contrast to foreign civilization. but rather, precisely, when it is grounded on a solid basis in Chinese learning. Thus we read:-

'No, the safe thing is to give him a good, solid fund of knowledge. It is when there is a fund of Chinese learning ("zae" 才) that the Japanese spirit ("yamato-damashii" 大和魂) is respected in the world.' (Murasaki Shikibu,The Tale of Genji tr. Edward Seidensticker, 1976, 1:362)

Lexicology

"Yamato-damashii" "Japan, Japanese" compounds "Yamato" (, lit. "great harmony") with "damashii", which is the voiced "rendaku" pronunciation of "tamashii" ( "spirit; soul"). Both these "kanji" readings "Yamato" (大和) and "damashii" (魂) are native Japanese "kun'yomi", while the "Wakon" (和魂 "Japanese spirit") reading is Sinitic "on'yomi" borrowed from Chinese "Héhún" (和魂).

"Yamato" is historically the second of three common Japanese endonyms (or autonyms) for 'Japan; Japanese'.
*"Wa" ( or ) is Japan's oldest endonym and derives from the Han Dynasty Chinese exonym "Wō" 倭 "Japan, Japanese". This character 倭, which graphically combines the "human, person" radical and a "wěi" "bend" phonetic, was usually pronounced "wēi" in Classical Chinese compounds like "wēichí" 倭遲 "winding, circuitous", but scholars have interpreted "Wō" 倭 "Japanese" as connoting either "submissive; docile" or "short; dwarf". In the 8th century, Japanese scribes replaced the pejorative Chinese character 倭 for "Wa" "Japan" with "Wa" 和 "harmony; peace".
*"Yamato" (大和, lit. "great harmony") is the oldest native name for "Japan". "Daiwa" and "Taiwa" (borrowed from Chinese "dàhé" 大和) are "on'yomi" readings. This name "Yamato" (大和) originally referred to "Yamato Province", around present-day Nara Prefecture, where Emperor Jimmu legendarily founded Japan. Common words with this prefix include "Yamato-jidai" (大和時代 "Yamato period", 250-710 CE), "Yamato-minzoku" (大和民族 "Yamato people; Japanese race"), and "Yamato-e" (大和絵 "traditional Japanese-style paintings").
*"Nihon" or "Nippon" (, lit. "sun's origin"; "Japan") is the normal modern endonym. Compared with the neutral pronunciation "Nihon", "Nippon" has more nationalistic connotations. In current Japanese usage, "Wa" 倭 is an archaic variant Chinese character for "Wa" 和, "Yamato" is a literary and historical term, and "Nihon" is the usual name for "Japan; Japanese".

"Tamashii" or "tama" (魂 "soul; spirit; ghost" or 霊 "spirit; soul") is Japanese "kun'yomi", while "kon" or "gon" is Chinese "on'yomi" (from "hún" 魂). The Shinto-influenced semantics of Japanese "tama"/"tamashii" exceed customary English concepts of "spirit", "soul", or "ghost", besides the human soul, it also includes diverse spiritual forces found in nature. Roy Andrew Miller suggests that German "Geist" or French "" are better translations than English "spirit" or "soul".

But finally we must conclude that nothing in any commonly used European language, including English, really does justice to Japanese "tama". The spirit, soul, "Geist", or "élan" to which the Japanese term has reference, whether it is the "tama" of "Yamato-damashii" or the "tama" of "kotodama", is a vital and active entity that plays no part in any usual Western-language imagery or expression. We have no such word, and we make use of no imagery capitalizing upon the concepts that it employs; but the Japanese have, and they do. (1982:131)

"Kotodama" (言霊, lit. "word spirit", approximately "magic word") illustrate this traditional Japanese belief about "tama(shii)" energies. "Kenkyūsha's New Japanese-English Dictionary" (5th ed., 2003) gives "kotodama" translation equivalents and a revealing usage example: "ことだま【言霊】 the ⌈soul [spirit] of language; the miraculous power of ⌈language [a phrase, a spell] . ̍ ⇨ 言霊の幸(さきわ)う国 Japan, "the land where the mysterious workings of language bring bliss"."

"Yamato Nadeshiko" (大和撫子, lit. "Japanese fringed pink") is a floral metaphor for "the idealized traditional Japanese woman". During World War II, ultra-nationalists popularized "Yamato-nadeshiko" as the female manifestation of "Yamato-damashii".

Later History

The record of "Yamato-damashii" dates back one millennium to the Heian period (794-1185) of Japanese history, when Chinese culture and Chinese language were highly influential.

"Yamato-gokoro" (大和心 "Japanese heart; Japanese mind" is the closest synonym of "Yamato-damashii". The Heian poet Akazome Emon first used "Yamato-gokoro" in her "Goshūi Wakashū" (後拾遺和歌集 "Later Collection of Waka Gleanings," 1086).

Since "Wa" 和 commonly abbreviates "Yamato" 大和 "Japan; Japanese", 和魂 (also read "Wakon") is a contraction of "Yamato-damashii". The "Konjaku Monogatarishū" (circa 1120) first uses it describing a burglar who murdered a nattering scholar of Chinese classical law. "Although Kiyohara no Yoshizumi (清原善澄) had admirable learning, he is said to have died in this childish way because he did not have the slightest knowledge of the Japanese spirit" (tr. Carr 1994:283).

For centuries after its use by Heian authors "Yamato-damashii" was rarely recorded until the late Edo period (1600-1868). One notable Kamakura Period exception is the "Gukanshō" history (ca. 1220), which uses "Yamato-damashii" (和魂) in praising the character of child Emperor Toba (r. 1107-1123).

Still, he had the personality of (his uncle) Fujiwara no Kinzane (藤原公実) characterized by Chinese learning and followed in the footsteps of (his ancestor) Sugawara no Michizane, but Toba had even more Japanese spirit than either of them. (adapted from Carr 1994:283)

Three new "Japanese sprit" phrases originated around the 1867 Meiji Restoration. First, the modernization "Nihon-damashii" (日本魂) was fashioned by Kyokutei Bakin, a famous samurai author of Gesaku. His "Chinsetsu Yumiharizuki" ("The Crescent Moon", 1811) quotes Minamoto no Tametomo discussing seppuku rituals: "I admit that a person who does not care about dying when on the verge of death may superficially have the Japanese spirit, but I think this is a misunderstanding from not having learned about it." (tr. Carr 1994:284). Second, "Wakon-kansai" (和魂漢才 "Japanese spirit and Chinese scholarship") occurs in the "Kanke ikai" (菅家遺戒 "Sugawara's dying instructions"). Third, "Wakon-yōsai" (和魂洋才 "Japanese spirit and Western techniques") was created by Yoshikawa Tadayasu (吉川忠安) in his "Kaika sakuron" (開化策論 , "Questions and Themes on Progress", 1867).

Following the Japanese victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War, nationalists made "Wakon-yōsai" into a catchphrase for modernization and militarization, and developed "Yamato-damashii" into what Miller (1982:13) calls "the official rallying cry for the Japanese armed forces in World War II."

In the present day, "Yamato-damashii" is historically associated with Japanese nationalism, but is commonly used in Nihonjinron discussions and sports media. Professor David Pollack predicts that "Yamato-damashii" will become extinct.

Synthesis comes to an end only when antithesis ceases to appear. For many centuries Japan found its most significant antithesis in China. During the last century and a half the West has been the antithetical term in the dialectic, and as always it has been in that "other" that Japan has sought its own image, peering anxiously for signs of its own identity into the mirror of the rest of the world. After the challenge of Western technology has been successfully met, one wonders what will be left that is "alien," besides the very fact that the historically necessary "other" is lacking. In that case, "Japanese spirit" (Yamato-damashii) will find itself face to face with the most frightening "other" of all – its lack – at which point opposition must cease or else feed upon itself. (1986:52-3)

Definitions

Racially and ethnically offensive words are problematic for dictionaries. Lexicographers and publishers have editorial policies for treating ethnic slurs and insults. For example, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed., 2000) defines "Jap" as "Offensive Slang". Used as a disparaging term for a person of Japanese birth or descent."

Michael Carr argues that "Yamato-damashii" (1994:280-1) "significantly differs from everyday racist slurs because it is not an overt insult, it is the opposite: an ethnic adulation. It belongs to a special category of benedictions such as "Manifest Destiny" or "Chosen People" that imply national, racial, or ethnic self-conceit." The nationalist and racist connotations of Japanese "Yamato-damashii" are comparable with German "Herrenvolk" ("Master race").

Carr lexicographically analyzed "Yamato-damashii" definitions among modern general-purpose Japanese dictionaries from four publishers, namely, "Daijisen" (Shōgakukan, 1986), "Daijirin" (Sanseidō, 1988), "Nihongo Daijiten" (Kōdansha, 1989), and "Kōjien" (Iwanami, 1991).

For instance, this definition from the popular "Daijirin" dictionary gives the "kanji" 大和魂, modern and Old Japanese pronunciations, two meanings, synonyms, and usage examples from Japanese literature.

やまとだましい［―だましひ］4 【《大和》魂】①大和心。和魂。（漢学を学んで得た知識に対して）日本人固有の実務・世事などを処理する能力・知恵をいう。「才(ざえ)を本としてこそ、―の世に用ゐらるる方も強う侍らめ〔出典： 源氏（乙女）〕」 「露、―無かりける者にて〔出典： 今昔 二十〕」②( 近世以降の国粋思想の中で用いられた語)日本民族固有の精神。日本人としての意識。
yamato ... -damashii, "-damashiFi" "type 4" [accent on "da"] 【《大和》魂】1. "yamato-gokoro". "wakon". (in contrast to knowledge obtained from studying Chinese classics) Japanese people's characteristic ability or wisdom/intelligence for managing/treating actual things and worldly affairs. "The Tale of Genji" (The Maiden [chapter] ) "Without a solid foundation of book-learning this 'Japanese spirit' of which one hears so much is not of any great use in the world." [Tales of] Times Now Past (20) "He did not have the slightest knowledge of the Japanese spirit." 2. (term used in ultra-nationalistic ideology of recent times) characteristic mentality of the Japanese race/people. Consciousness/awareness of being a Japanese person. (tr. Carr 1994:288)

Collectively, these four definitions provide insights into what "Yamato-damashii" means in current Japanese usage. They all distinguish two basic meanings: ① "A Japanese practical ability; opposed to Chinese scholarship" and ② "A traditional (bushido/nationalistic) concept of death-defying valor". When two or more definitions use identical terminology, it suggests consensus on semantics. For instance, while the dictionaries split on whether meaning ① refers to "Nihon-minzoku" (日本民族 "Japanese race/people/nation") or "Nihon-jin" (日本人 "Japanese person/people"), all four say the nationalistic meaning ② refers to "Nihon-minzoku".

For meaning ①, the most salient word (used 7 times) is "koyū" (固有 "inherent; innate; characteristic; special quality"). This sense is defined as a "noryoku" (能力 "ability, capability; competency") or "chie" (知恵 "wisdom; insight; intelligence"), which pertains to "jisseikatsujōno" (実生活上 "real life; everyday/practical reality') or "jitsumutekina" (実務的な "actual things, practical experience").

For meaning ②, all the definitions describe a "seishin" (精神 "mind; mentality; spirit; soul; genius"). Specifically a "Japanese spirit" with "kakan" (果敢 "boldness; courage; daring; determination"), "yūmō" (勇猛 "bravery; valor; intrepidness; daring"), and "shinmei o mo oshimanai" (身命をも惜しまない "without regard for one's life"), especially when "koto ni atatte" (事に当たって "facing a vital matter; in case of crisis"). Purity is mentioned with "seijo" (清浄 "purity; cleanliness") and "isagiyoi" (潔い "pure; clean; honorable; gallant; brave").

Within this dictionary sample, only the "Nihongo daijiten" qualifies "Yamato-damashii" as a characteristic that is "to sareta" (とされた "assumed, supposed; alleged'"), whereas the other three define it as a matter of fact. Carr concludes (1994:290), "Believing that all individuals of any race or nationality share certain "spiritual" characteristics is at best overgeneralization, or at worst racism."

Some monolingual English dictionaries enter "Yamato" or "Yamato-e", but only the Oxford English Dictionary enters "Yamato-damashii".

Yamato (ja'mato) [Jap., = 'Japan']
1. The style or school of art in Japan which culminated in the 12th and 13th centuries and dealt with Japanese subjects in a distinctively Japanese (rather than Chinese) way. Usu. as Yamato-e (†-we) ["e" picture] ; also –ryū [-"ryū" style, orig. stream, school] . …
2. Yamato-damashii: the Japanese spirit. … (v. 3, 2002)

The "OED" gives three usage examples, starting with "Yamato-damashi" (1942, "Royal Air Force Journal", "He will be filled with what is called "yamato damashi" [sic] or the pure spirit of Japan.") and "Yamato-damashii" (1957, "Encyclopædia Britannica"). Note that the 1904 Hearn quotation above antedates this 1942 citation.

Most Japanese-English dictionaries literally translate "Yamato-damashii" as "the Japanese spirit". For instance, Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary (5th ed., 2003) enters "Yamato" "やまと【大和】 Yamato; (old) Japan" along with 14 subentries, including "Yamato-damashii" "大和魂 the Japanese spirit" and "Yamato-gokoro" "大和心 the Japanese spirit; the Japanese sensibility."

The online "Encyclopedia of Shinto" (linked below, note the pronunciation file) comprehensively defines Yamato-damashii.

Literally, "Japanese spirit"; "Yamato damashii" is also written 大和魂. This term is often contrasted with "Chinese Learning" ("karasae"), that is, knowledge and scholarship imported into Japan from China. "Yamato damashii" refers to an inherent faculty of common-sense wisdom, resourcefulness, and prudent judgment that is characteristic of, and unique to, the Japanese people. It also refers to a practical, "real life" ability and intelligence that is in contrast with scholarship and knowledge acquired through formal education. It is a term used to express such ideas as the essential purity and resolute spirit of the Japanese people, the wish for the peace and security of the nation, and the possession of a strong spirit and emotion that will meet any challenge, even at the expense of one's own life. "Yamato damashii" is synonymous with "Yamato gokoro" (lit. "Japanese heart").

Trivia

"Yamato Damashii" is a common proper name, for instance, schools of Japanese martial arts. It also occurs in popular culture.
*"Yamato Damashii" is the fighting nickname of Enson Inoue.
*"Kapone no Shatei, Yamato Damashii" ("A Boss with the Samurai Spirit", 1971) is a movie starring Tomisaburo Wakayama.

References

*Carr, Michael. "Yamato-Damashii" "Japanese Spirit" Definitions". "International Journal of Lexicography", 7(4):279-306 (1994). doi:10.1093/ijl/7.4.279
* Hearn, Lafcadio. " [http://books.google.com/books?id=CL0eAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3&dq=Japan:+An+Attempt+at+Interpretation#PPP14,M1 Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation] ". Macmillan Company. 1904.
*Miller, Roy Andrew. "Japan's Modern Myth". Weatherhill, 1982.
*Pollack, David. "The Fracture of Meaning: Japan's Synthesis of China from the Eighth through the Eighteenth Centuries". Princeton University Press. 1986.
*Saitô Shôji 斉藤正二. "Yamatodamashii" no bunkashi". 「やまとだましい」の文化史 [A Cultural History of the "Japanese Spirit"] . Kôdansha. 1972.
*Sakurai Tadayoshi. "Human Bullets: A Soldier's Story of the Russo-Japanese War." Bison Books. 1999. ISBN 0-8032-9266-
*Seidensticker, Edward G., tr. "The Tale of Genji". Alfred A. Knopf. 1976. 2 vols.

External links

* [http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1236 Yamato damashii] , Encyclopedia of Shinto article, Fukui Yoshihiko
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=sG_AYgc2UDwC&pg=PR3&dq=%22japanese+spirit%22 The Japanese Spirit] , Okakura Yoshisaburo, 1905
* [http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-20/chapter_viii.htm The Japanese Spirit: Foundation of Japanese Peculiarity] , chapter from "Cultural Impact on International Relations", Guo Jiemin, 2002
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=OJnCSm950LgC&pg=PA75&dq=yamato+damashii Yamato Damashii] , Chapter from "The Japanese Nation in Evolution: Steps in the Progress of a Great People", William Elliot Griffis, 1907