Women in Christianity

Christian views (attitudes and beliefs) about women vary considerably today as they have throughout the last two millennia, evolving along with or counter to the societies in which Christians have lived. The Bible and Christianity historically have been interpreted as prescribing distinct gender roles, with women often being excluded from church leadership. Until the second half of the twentieth century, institutionalized Christianity was unfavorable to women in pastoral or ecclesiastical office. This traditional stance continues largely unchanged in Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, as well as among "complementarian" Protestants.

Some contemporary writers describe the role of women in the life of the church as having been downplayed, overlooked, or denied throughout much of Christian history. Male leadership was assumed in many spheres of life, not only in the church, but also within government, society, and the family.Blevins, Carolyn DeArmond, "Women in Christian History: A Bibliography." Macon, Georgia: Mercer Univ Press, 1995. ISBN 086554493X]

As gender roles have shifted in society and in many churches, many Christians are re-evaluating their historic positions. Over the last 50 years Christian egalitarians have increasingly argued for equal roles for men and women in marriage, as well as for the ordination of women to the clergy.

Modern views

Some 19th century Christian authors [For example, Katharine Bushnell, L.A. Starr, Charles H. Pridgeon, Phoebe Palmer, A. J. Gordon, Frances Willard, and many others] began codifying challenges to the centuries-old traditional views toward women both in the church and in society. Only since the 1970s have more diverse views become formalized. Recent generations have experienced the rise of what has been labeled by some as "Christian feminism" — a movement that has had a profound impact on all of life, challenging some traditional basic Christian interpretations of Scripture with respect to roles for women.

There are three major viewpoints in the modern debate. They are known respectively as Christian feminism, Christian Egalitarianism and Complementarianism.

* Christian Feminists take an actively feminist position from a Christian perspective. [See ] Throughout the Old Testament era, men continued to rule over women in a "patriarchal" system, which constituted a "compromise" or "accommodation" between sinful reality and the divine ideal. The New Testament moves forward from Old Testament patriarchy, re-instituting full equality of gender roles, principally in merely distorted this leadership by introducing "ungodly domination".). Although the details of these gospel stories may be questioned, in general they reflect the prominent historical roles women played in Jesus' ministry as disciples. There were women disciples present at Jesus' crucifixion. Women were reported to be the first witnesses to the resurrection, chief among them again Mary Magdalene. She was not only "witness," but also called a "messenger" of the risen Christ [Ingrid Maisch, tr. by Linda M. Maloney. Collegeville MN: Liturgical Press, 1998. ISBN 0814624715] .

The letters of Paul—dated to the middle of the first century CE—and his casual greetings to acquaintances offer information about Jewish and Gentile women who were prominent in the movement. His letters provide clues about the kind of activities in which women engaged more generally.http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/missions.html#letters letters of Paul]
*He greets Priscilla (Prisca), Junia, Julia, and Nereus' sister (bibleref2|Romans|16:3,7,15).
*Paul writes that Priscilla and her husband risked their lives to save his life.
*He praises Junia (or Junias) as "prominent among the apostles" (NRSV) or "well known to the apostles" (ESV), who had been imprisoned for their labor. Some theologians understand the name to be that of a woman, suggesting that Paul recognised female apostles in the Church. [Wallace, Daniel B. "Junia Among the Apostles: The Double Identification Problem in [http://www.bible.org/page.php?page_id=1163# Romans 16:7"] ] [Citation|title=Junia: The First Woman Apostle|author=Eldon Jay Epp and Beverly Roberts Gaventa|publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 2005]
*Mary and Persis are commended for their hard work (bibleref2|Romans|16:6,12).
*Euodia and Syntyche are called his fellow-workers in the gospel (bibleref2|Philippians|4:2-3).

Some theologians believe that these biblical reports provide evidence of women leaders active in the earliest work of spreading the Christian message,King, Karen L. "Women in Ancient Christianity: The New Discoveries." http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/women.html] [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/fem08.html Women's Roles in the Early Church] while others reject that understanding. The evidence also indicates that these women "ministered" in supporting roles of the church much as the women who followed Christ supported his ministry.

Women in church history

Patristic age

From the early patristic age, the offices of teacher and sacramental minister were reserved for men throughout most of the church in the East and West.Citation|author=William Weinrich|contribution=Women in the History of the Church|title=Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood|editor=John Piper and Wayne Grudem (eds.)|publisher=Crossway 1991.] Tertullian, the second century Latin father, wrote that "It is not permitted to a woman to speak in church. Neither may she teach, baptize, offer, nor claim for herself any function proper to a man, least of all the sacerdotal office" ( [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.iii.iv.i.html "On the Veiling of Virgins"] ). The Alexandrian father Origen argued in his commentary on 1 Corinthians 14:34, 35 that female prophets never spoke publicly in the assembly. Similarly, Epiphanius of Salamis claimed that "Never from the beginning of the world has a woman served God as priest" ("Against the heresies").

John Chrysostom, bishop of Constantinople at the beginning of the fifth century, said of biblical women that they "were great characters, great women and admirable... Yet did they in no case outstrip the men, but occupied the second rank" ( [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf113.iii.iv.xiv.html "Epistle to the Ephesians", Homily 13] ). Commenting on 1 Timothy 2:11-15, Chrysostom said that "the male sex enjoyed the higher honor. Man was first formed; and elsewhere he shows their superiority... He wishes the man to have the preeminence in every way". Of women he said that "The woman taught once, and ruined all. On this account therefore he saith, let her not teach. But what is it to other women, that she suffered this? It certainly concerns them; for the sex is weak and fickle, and he is speaking of the sex collectively." ( [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf113.v.iii.x.html "1 Timothy", Homily 9] ).

In early centuries, the Eastern church allowed women to participate to a limited extent in ecclesiastical office by ordaining deaconesses, whereas in the West the diaconate (as with higher offices) was reserved only for men.

A number of minority movements, deemed heretical by the wider church, gave a more prominent place to the ministry of women and in some cases allowed them to participate in the priestly ministry. These include Montanism in the second and third century, the Quintillians and Collyridians in the fourth century, and Priscillianism in the fourth century. These heretical sects provided occasion for the institutional church to condemn the ecclesiastical ministry of women.

Middle ages

The Roman Catholic Church was the major unifying cultural influence of the Middle Ages with its selection from Latin learning, preservation of the art of writing, and a centralized administration through its network of bishops.

Historically in the Catholic and other ancient churches, including the Coptic Church, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, the priesthood and the ministries dependent upon it such as Bishop, Patriarch and Pope, were restricted to men. This was ostensibly because the priest when performing the Eucharist stands in representation of Jesus, and because Jesus himself scripturally selected only male Apostles to lead the Church. Notably, Pope Innocent III stated: "No matter whether the most blessed Virgin Mary stands higher, and is also more illustrious, than all the apostles together, it was still not to her, but to them, that the Lord entrusted the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven" ("Epistle", 11 December 1210).

Women were allowed to be Deaconesses in the early church. However, the first Council of Orange (441) forbade the ordination of women to the diaconate, a ruling that was repeated by the Council of Epaon (517) and second Council of Orléans (533). [Citation|contribution=Deaconesses|title=Catholic Encyclopedia (1908)|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04651a.htm|author=Herbert Thurston] These councils are seen by some as evidence that the ministry of women was actively suppressed during the early middle ages. [cite book|title=Daughters of the church|author=Ruth A. Tucker and Walter L. Liefeld|publisher=Zondervan, 1987]

With the establishment of Christian monasticism, other influential roles became available to women. From the 5th century onward, Christian convents provided opportunities for some women to escape the path of marriage and child-rearing, acquire literacy and learning, and play a more active religious role. Abbesses could become important figures in their own right, often ruling over monasteries of both men and women, and holding significant lands and power. Figures such as Hilda of Whitby and Hildegard of Bingen became influential figures on a national and even international scale. In the later Middle Ages women such as Saint Catherine of Siena and Saint Teresa of Avila, played significant roles in the development of theological ideas and discussion within the church, and were later declared Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church.

A major spokesman for the Church in the High Middle Ages (11th through 13th centuries) was Thomas Aquinas,Aquinas, Thomas. "St. Thomas Aquinas on Politics and Ethics." Ed. & Trans. Paul E. Sigmund. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1988] one of the 33 Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church and renowned thirteenth-century theologian. Writings of Thomas Aquinas about women were an opposing influence upon church and philosophical attitudes towards women for centuries. [http://womenshistory.about.com/od/aquinasonwomen/Aquinas_on_Women.htm Aquinas on Women] He began his argument of women and their involvement in the creation story by quoting Aristotle's misogynist view of a woman as being "a misbegotten man." Aquinas reasoned that anything "misbegotten" or "defective" should not have existed in the creation story, therefore women should not exist. He viewed women as having been created for man simply to make procreation possible. Men can gain help and support from other men, but the act of procreation requires a woman, he wrote. By arguing that women were created simply to allow continuation of the human race, he attempted to shut down the argument that God made a "mistake" in creating women. However, according to Aquinas, the female sex cannot represent Christ because women are "incomplete human beings". [S.Th. III Supp. 39, 1]

Post Reformation

The Protestant Reformation, by shutting down female convents within the movement, effectively closed off the option of a full-time religious role for Protestant women.Fact|date=January 2008 Martin Luther himself taught that "the wife should stay at home and look after the affairs of the household as one who has been deprived of the ability of administering those affairs that are outside and concern the state...." [Luther, Martin. "Lectures on Genesis 3:11."] John Calvin agreed that "the woman's place is in the home." [Calvin, John. "A Sermon of M. Iohn Caluine upon the "Epistle of Saint Paul, to Titus." Online: http://www.covenanter.org/JCalvin/titussermons/srmtts11.htm. ]

Current church views of women's roles

In general, the issues have been what the proper role of women is (a) in marriage; (b) in the church; (c) in society at large. Among the denominations, movements, and organizations that express or have previously expressed a view, there are four main views:

# Full equality of roles and rights:
#* African Methodist Episcopal Church
#* American Baptist Churches USA
#* Assemblies of God
#* Baptist Union of Great Britain
#* Christians for Biblical Equality
#* Church of the Brethren
#* Episcopal Church USA
#* Evangelical Covenant Church
#* Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
#* The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church(LEPC)(GCEPC)in the USA
#* Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland
#* Free Methodist Church
#* Presbyterian Church USA
#* Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) — Quakers have always believed in the legitimacy of women's ministry, with only a few exceptions in the early years. In 1848 at a conference in Seneca Falls, New York, 100 men and women signed a declaration that "all men and women are created equally." Early leaders of the movement were Quaker, including Lucretia Mott.
#* United Church of Canada
#* United Church of Christ
#* United Methodist Church
#* Uniting Church in Australia
#* Many others
# Full secular equality but restricted ecclesiastical roles and privileges:
#* Eastern Orthodox Church
#* Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod
#* Lutheran Church-Wisconsin Synod
#* Orthodox Presbyterian Church
#* Presbyterian Church in America
#* Presbyterian Church of Australia
#* Roman Catholic Church
#* The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
#* Many others
# Restricted roles or rights in both secular and ecclesiastical life:
#* Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood
#* Jehovah's Witnesses
# Forced restricted roles or rights
#* Christian Reconstructionism
#* Dominion theology
# Mixed
#* Southern Baptist Convention's official position [ [http://www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp The Baptist Faith & Message ] ] is to prohibit females from becoming clergy, and to insist that a wife "graciously submit" to the leadership of her husband. Members of an individual ("local") Southern Baptist church are allowed to vote on matters of business of the church that include the hiring of a pastor. However, many churches that have chosen female clergy as their pastor have been disenfranchised by either local or state Baptist associations. The vast majority of the congregations tend to hold full secular equality for women.

The above lists are examples and are obviously not exhaustive. It is not always clear which category a church or movement falls into.

The Wesleyan tradition and the Holiness and Pentecostal movements, as well as a growing number of contemporary Charismatic churches which draw from them, have increasingly accepted women as leaders on an equal footing with men.

Roman Catholicism, addresses the issue from the highest levels, including the Papal Office. For instance, Pope John Paul II has addressed this issue in his 1995, [ [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_let_29061995_women_en.html "Letter to Women"] ] his 1996, [ [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/1996/december/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19961207_motherhood_en.html "Address on Promoting the Well-Being of Women"] ] and the 1988 Apostolic Letter, [ [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_15081988_mulieris-dignitatem_en.html"On the Dignity and Vocation of Women"] ] for examples.

Prayer to Mary and the Saints

The custom of directing prayers of intercession to the Virgin Mary and the Saints is one that plays a major part in Christian practice in the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Church, and Eastern Orthodox Churches including the Coptic Churches. The custom dates back to the early church. Prayers were directed to those dead Christians who were believed to be in the direct presence of God in heaven. This was done in the hope that the intercession of these "heavenly saints" would join with the prayers of those on earth. Many of the Christian Saints prayed to in this manner are female. The Virgin Mary, because of her motherhood of Jesus, is considered the most effective intercessor and dispenser of Graces. This practice has led to the honouring and devotion to female Saints in those branches of Christianity that recommend such devotions.

References and notes

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Catholic Church references

* "Declaration "Inter Insigniores" on the question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood." Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, October 15, 1976.
* Apostolic Letter "Ordinatio Sacerdotalis" (On Ordination to the Priesthood)." Pope John Paul II, May 22, 1994.
* "Apostolic Letter "Mulieris Dignitatem" (On the Dignity of Women)." Pope John Paul II, August 15, 1988.
* Catechism of the Catholic Church. Many Christians also see Mary as the prototypical Christian, as in the Bible she was the first to hear the Good News of Jesus' coming. She is one of the few of Jesus' followers reported to be present at his crucifixion. Thus she is a woman who is most imitated among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saints.

Literature on the history of women in the early Christian Church

* Torjesen, Karen Jo. "When Women were Priests: Women's Leadership in the Early Church & The Scandal of their Subordination in the Rise of Christianity." New York, NY: Harper Collins Publisher, 1995.
* Wiley,Tatha. "Paul and the Gentile Women: Reframing Galatians" New York: Continuum, 2005.
* MacDonald, Margaret. "Reading Real Women Through Undisputed Letters of Paul." In "Women and Christian Origins" edited by Ross Sheppard Kraemer and Mary Rose D'Angelo. Oxford: University Press, 1999.
* Witherington, Ben III. "Women in the Earliest Churches." Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

See also

* Christian egalitarianism
* Christian feminism
* Christians for Biblical Equality an egalitarian organization
* Christianity
* Complementarianism
* Female disciples of Jesus
* Feminism
* Feminist theology
* Katharine Bushnell Pioneer Christian feminist
* Old Testament views on women
* Quaker views of women
* Women as theological figures

External links

* [http://www.cbeinternational.org Christians for Biblical Equality] , principal egalitarian organization
* [http://www.cbmw.org/ The Council for Biblical Manhood and Womanhood] , principal complementarian organization
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_15081988_mulieris-dignitatem_en.html Apostolic Letter MULIERIS DIGNITATEM] , Pope John Paul II (1988), on the dignity and vocation of women (statement of Roman Catholic position)