Javanese Public Administration

Uniquely Javanese administrative practices survive in modified form as dominant elements of Indonesia's public administration. In the past they regulated public affairs and set behavioral norms in a succession of the island's notable empires, including Sailendra Mataram, Majapahit, the Demak confederacy, and seventeenth-century Mataram, for nearly a millennium before succumbing first to colonial practices and subsequently to global standardization. As the past is father of the present, familiarity with Javanese administration provides grounds for better understanding Indonesian public administration.

Javanese Administration

Javanese administration can be characterized as authoritarian, self-sufficient, and law abiding. Its authoritarian nature meant that stability of the realm was dependent upon the abilities of its head, be it "raja", "susuhunan", or "sultan". A semi-deified figure, the administrative chain-of command led directly to him as master ("gusti"). All others, including the realm's highest officials, were his servants ("kawula"). The only exception was the royal family ("sentana"), whose more competent members provided an administrative vanguard. The back side of the in theory highly centralized state was its brittleness. Without delegation of authority its officials could act only as intermittent surrogates of the ruler, not as autonomous administrators with well defined duties and responsibilities. A logical extension of this was officials' lack of functional specialization. Administrative self-sufficiency applied for the realm. As an extension of the royal will, local administration was tofunction with as little as possibly input from the center. While de facto authority wielded by territorial strongmen was recognized, they were bound to the exemplary center by grants of titles and emoluments ---- although only for the life-time of the holder ---- and marriage alliances raising the individual's status to that of the royal family. From collected taxes and imposts local administrators received payment directly before the remainder was remitted to the capital as the king's dues, thus minimizing the administrative structure. Everyone in the realm was subjected to Javanese law. In practice this meant the continuation of that inherited from past usage. As the head of the administration the king was the instrument of law, not its initiator, and therefore subjected to its contents. Javanese law was given, multiple, and advisory, but universal in its conception.

Colonial modifications

All this was radically altered by the advent of the colonial state, which was also authoritarian, but in a different manner. Sultan, "susuhunan", and "raja" were subordinated to colonial officials headed by the Governor General, who were themselves subordinates of the Colonial Office, a sub-section of the Netherlands government ultimately responsible to the Dutch Parliament. Administrative self-sufficiency was replaced by a centralized colonial hierarchy in which native (inlander) officials found a place first at a relative low level. These priyayi, or feudal bureaucratic nobility, were bound to the Dutch crown through the creation of hereditary ranks and positions, allowing almost unlimited exploitation of the Dutch colony's Native ("inlander") subjects, and enforced by marks of honor and deferment. In contrast stood the 'white only' Dutch administrative corps, which was developing towards a rational Weberian bureaucracy. Dutch Indies law replaced Javanese law. The relative small part still applicable to theJavanese, not Dutch or 'honorary whites', was divided into five different customary law regions("adatrechtskringen") from the earlier universal, or at least Java-wide, ideal. Law became man made ---- through Dutch Parliament, administrative decree, or statutory custom, i.e. custom made into binding precedent ---- absolute, and obligatory.

Global standards

Excepting the last decade, authoritarian rule has been the rule rather than the exception during the Republic's lifetime. Leaders dictated administrative policy, conformity being equated with loyalty to the regime. This wasexacerbated by the fact that experienced administrators from the colonial period could not be recruited for service in the Republic of Indonesia established in 1945. The embryonic Weberian (European) bureaucracy wasrepatriated after internment 1942-45 by the Japanese occupational forces; the "priyayi" were tainted by their perks in office and orientation toward Dutch colonial priorities. As a result, administrators were recruited and theadministration run on the basis of political criteria rather than training, experience, or seniority. The most important rule of administrative conduct has become 'as long as the boss is satisfied ("asal Bapak senang"), atendency strengthened by the fact that the administrative elite reserves for itself ultimate rights of interpretation of vaguely worded laws and regulations. Questions over administrative self-sufficiency v centralized control have been raised by decentralization laws dating from 1999. Regardless of their contributions to regional and local self-rule, the measures have often contributed more to decentralize corruption than good government. Skimming off local resources via licenses, ordinances, and authorization is reminiscence of traditional Javanese administration, as are the predominance of family ties and privileged groups. The rule of law remains an ideal rather than a reality, Indonesia's judicial institutions being one of the least trusted by its own citizens (Hoadley 2006:170-71, 228-33). Despite the undeniably impressive advances in political democracy during the present Reformation Era, the prevalence of a dysfunctional administrative system pervaded by KKN (corruption, collusion, and nepotism) calls into question the Republic's ability to attain its expressed desire of creating a modern, rational state apparatus in the Western sense.

References

*Dwiyanto, Agus (ed). 2002. "Reformasi birokrasi publik di Indonesia". Yoyakarta: Universitas Gadjah Mada.
*Hoadley, Mason C. 2006. "Public Administration. Indonesian Norms v Western Forms". Jakarta: Ilmu Graha.
*Mertono, Soemarsaid. 1968. "State and Statecraft in Old Java. A study of the later Mataram period, 16th to 19th century". Ithaca, New York: Modern Indonesia Project.
*Rohdewohdl, Rainer. 1995. "Public Administration in Indonesia". Melbourne, Australia.
*Sutjipto, F.A. 1968. Struktur birokrasi Mataram. "Majalah ilmu-ilmu sastra Indonesia" 4:1/2, 51-70.