- Graves' ophthalmopathy
Infobox_Disease
Name = Graves ophthalmopathy
Caption =
DiseasesDB = 5419
ICD10 = ICD10|H|06|2|h|00*
ICD9 = ICD9|xxx
ICDO =
OMIM =
MedlinePlus =
eMedicineSubj = oph
eMedicineTopic = 237
eMedicine_mult = eMedicine2|ent|169 eMedicine2|neuro|476 eMedicine2|radio|485
MeshID =Graves' ophthalmopathy, also known as Graves' thyroid-associated "or" dysthyroid orbitopathy "or" exophthalmos, is an
autoimmune inflammatory disorder affecting the orbit of the eye, with or withoutthyroid disorder.History
The first documented case of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO) may have been in the sixth century, affecting
Bodhidharma , who was the founder ofZen Buddhism andKung Fu . In the medical literature,Robert James Graves , in 1835, was the first to describe the association of a thyroidgoitre withexophthalmos of the eye. [WhoNamedIt|doctor|695|Robert James Graves] Graves' ophthalmopathy may occur before, with, or after the onset of overt thyroid disease and usually has a slow onset over many months.Epidemiology
The pathology mostly affects persons of 30 to 50 years of age. Females are four times more likely to develop TAO than males. When males are affected, they tend to have a later onset and a poor prognosis. A study demonstrated that at the time of diagnosis, 90% of the patients with clinical orbitopathy were
hyperthyroid according to thyroid function tests, while 3% hadHashimoto's thyroiditis , 1% werehypothyroid and 6% did not have any thyroid function tests abnormality. [cite journal |author=Bartley GB, Fatourechi V, Kadrmas EF, "et al" |title=Clinical features of Graves' ophthalmopathy in an incidence cohort |journal=Am. J. Ophthalmol. |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=284–90 |year=1996 |pmid=8597271 |doi=]Pathophysiology
TAO is an orbital
autoimmune disease . Thethyroid stimulating hormone receptor (TSH-R) is anantigen found in orbital fat andconnective tissue , and is a target for autoimmune assault. However, some patients with Graves’ orbitopathy present with neither anti-microsomal, anti-thyroglobulin nor anti-TSH receptor, theantibodies identified inGraves' disease .On histological examination there is an infiltration of the orbital connective tissue by
lymphocytes ,plasmocytes andmastocytes . The inflammation results in a deposition ofcollagen andglycosaminoglycans in the muscles, which leads to subsequent enlargement andfibrosis . There is also an induction of thelipogenesis byfibroblasts andpreadipocytes , which causes orbital volume enlargement due to fat deposition.igns and symptoms
In mild disease, patients present with eyelid retraction. In fact, upper eyelid retraction is the most common ocular sign of Graves' orbitopathy. This finding is associated with
lid lag on infraduction (Von Graefe's sign ), eye globe lag on supraduction (Kocher's sign ), a widenedpalpebral fissure during fixation (Dalrymple's sign ) and an incapacity of closing the eyelids completely (lagophthalmos ). Due to the proptosis, eyelid retraction and lagophthalmos, the cornea is more prone to dryness and may present withchemosis ,punctate epithelial erosions andsuperior limbic keratoconjunctivitis . The patients also have a dysfunction of the lacrimal gland with a decrease of the quantity and composition of tears produced. Non-specific symptoms with these pathologies include irritation, grittiness,photophobia , tearing and blurred vision. Pain is not typical, but patients often complain of pressure in the orbit. Periorbital swelling due to inflammation can also be observed.In moderate active disease, the signs and symptoms are persistent and increasing and include
myopathy . The inflammation andedema of the extraocular muscles lead to gaze abnormalities. Theinferior rectus muscle is the most commonly affected muscle and patient may experience verticaldiplopia on upgaze and limitation of elevation of the eyes due tofibrosis of the muscle. This may also increase the intraocular pressure of the eyes. The double vision is initially intermittent but can gradually become chronic. The medial rectus is the second most commonly affected muscle, but multiple muscles may be affected, in an asymmetric fashion.In more severe and active disease, mass effects and cicatricial changes occur within the orbit. This is manifested by a progressive
exophthalmos , a restrictive myopathy which restricts eye movements and an optic neuropathy. With enlargement of the extraocular muscle at the orbital apex, the optic nerve is at risk of compression. The orbital fat or the stretching of the nerve due to increased orbital volume may also lead to optic nerve damage. The patient experiences a loss of visual acuity,visual field defect,afferent pupillary defect , and loss of color vision. This is an emergency and requires immediate surgery to prevent permanent blindness.Diagnostic
Graves' ophthalmopathy is diagnosed clinically by the presenting ocular signs and symptoms, but positive tests for
antibodies (anti-thyroglobulin, anti-microsomal and anti-thyrotropin receptor) and abnormalities inthyroid hormones level (T3, T4 and TSH) help in supporting the diagnosis.Orbital imaging is an interesting tool for the diagnosis of Graves' ophthalmopathy and is useful in monitoring patients for progression of the disease. It is however not warranted when the diagnosis can be established clinically.
Ultrasonography may detect early Graves' orbitopathy in patients without clinical orbital findings. It is less reliable than theCT scan andmagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) however, to assess the extraocular muscle involvement at the orbital apex, which may lead to blindness. Thus, CT scan or MRI is necessary when optic nerve involvement is suspected. On neuroimaging, the most characteristic findings are thick extraocular muscles withtendon sparing, usually bilateral, and proptosis.Treatment
Even though some patients undergo spontaneous remission of symptoms within a year, many need treatment. The first step is the regulation of thyroid hormones levels by an endocrinologist.
Topical lubrication of the ocular surface is used to avoid corneal damage caused by exposure.
Tarsorrhaphy is an alternative option when the complications of ocular exposure can't be avoided solely with the drops.Corticosteroids are efficient in reducing orbital inflammation, but the benefits cease after discontinuation. Corticosteroids treatment is also limited because of their many side effects.Radiotherapy is an alternative option to reduce acute orbital inflammation. Unfortunately, there is still controversy surrounding its efficacy. A simple way of reducing inflammation is smoking cessation, as pro-inflammatory substances are found in cigarettes. Surgery may be done to decompress the orbit, to improve the proptosis and to address thestrabismus causing diplopia. Surgery is performed once the patient’s disease has been stable for at least six months. In severe cases, however, the surgery becomes urgent to prevent blindness from optic nerve compression.Eyelid surgery is the most common surgery performed on Graves ophthalmopathy patients. Lid-lengthening surgeries can be done on upper and lower eyelid to correct the patient’s appearance and the ocular surface exposure symptoms. Marginal
myotomy oflevator palpebrae muscle can reduce thepalpebral fissure height by 2-3 mm. When there is a more severe upper lid retraction or exposure keratitis, marginal myotomy of levator palpebrae associated with lateraltarsal canthoplasty is recommended. This procedure can lower the upper eyelid by as much as 8 mm. Other approaches include müllerectomy (resection of the Müller muscle), eyelid spacer grafts and recession of the lower eyelid retractors.Blepharoplasty can also be done to debulk the excess fat in the lower eyelid. [cite web | author=Muratet JM |title=Eyelid retraction |work=Ophthalmic Plastic Surgery |url=http://www.snof.org/chirurgie/eyelidsurg6.html |publisher=Le Syndicat National des Ophtalmologistes de France |accessdate=2007-07-12]Poor prognostic indicators
Risk factors of progressive and severe thyroid-associated orbitopathy are:
*Male gender
*Age greater than 50 years
*Rapid onset of symptoms under 3 months
*Cigarette smoking
*Diabetes
*Severe or uncontrolledhyperthyroidism
*Presence ofpretibial myxedema
*Highcholesterol levels (hyperlipidemia )
*Peripheral vascular disease References
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*cite journal |author=Morax S, Ben Ayed H |title= [Orbital decompression for dysthyroid orbitopathy: a review of techniques and indications] |language=French |journal=Journal français d'ophtalmologie |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=828–44 |year=2004 |pmid=15499287 |doi=
*Footnotes
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