Hundred Days' Reform

The Hundred Days' Reform (zh-stp|s=戊戌变法|t=戊戌變法|p=wùxū biànfǎ, or zh-stp|s=百日维新|t=百日維新|p=bǎirì wéixīn) was a failed 104-day national cultural, political and educational reform movement from 11 June to 21 September 1898, undertaken by the young Guangxu Emperor and his reform-minded supporters led by Kang Youwei. The movement proved to be short-lived, ending in a "coup d'état" (戊戌政變 "The Coup of 1898") by powerful conservative opponents led by Empress Dowager Cixi.

Beginning

The Qing emperor of China, Guangxu (1875–1908), ordered a series of reforms aimed at making sweeping social and institutional changes. This was in response to weaknesses exposed by China's defeat by Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894-5, not long after the Opium Wars; this blow came as a major shock to the Chinese, because Japan had been a tributary state, was much smaller than China, and was regarded as inferior. Moreover, the defeat of China by Japan led to a scramble of 'privileges' in China by other foreign powers, notably the German Empire and Russia, further awakening the stubborn conservatives.

With the help of certain senior officials of the Qing court, who were supporters of reform, Kang Youwei was permitted to speak with the Emperor, and his suggestions were enacted. Some of Kang's students were also given minor but strategic posts in the capital to assist with the reforms. Some essential preconditions of reform were:

* Modernizing the traditional exam system

* Elimination of sinecures (positions that provide little or no work but give a salary)

* Creation of a modern education system (studying math and science instead of focusing mainly on Confucian texts, etc.)

* Change the government from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy with democracy.

* Apply principles of capitalism to strengthen the economy.

* Completely change the military buildup to strengthen the military.

* Rapidly industrialize all of China through manufacturing, commerce, and capitalism.

The reformers declared that China needed more than "self-strengthening" and that innovation must be accompanied by institutional and ideological change.

End

Opposition to the reform was intense among the conservative ruling elite, who, condemning the announced reform as too radical, proposed instead a more moderate and gradualist course of change. Supported by ultraconservatives and having the tacit support of the political opportunist Yuan Shikai, Empress Dowager Cixi engineered a "coup d'état" on September 21, 1898, forcing the young, reform-minded Guangxu into seclusion. The emperor was put under house arrest within the Forbidden City until his death in 1908. Cixi then took over the government as regent. The Hundred Days' Reform ended with the rescinding of the new edicts and the execution of six of the reform's chief advocates, together known as the "Six Gentlemen" (戊戌六君子): Tan Sitong, Kang Guangren (Kang Youwei's brother), Lin Xu, Yang Shenxiu, Yang Rui (reformer) and Liu Guangdi. The two principal leaders, Kang Youwei and his student Liang Qichao, fled abroad to found the Baohuang Hui (Protect the Emperor Society) and to work, unsuccessfully, for a constitutional monarchy in China. Another leader of the reform, Tan Sitong, refused to flee and was arrested and executed.

Aftermath

In the decade that followed, the court belatedly put into effect some reform measures. These included the abolition of the Imperial Examination in 1905, educational and military modernization patterned after the model of Japan, and an experiment in constitutional and parliamentary government. The suddenness and ambitiousness of the reform effort actually hindered its success. One effect, to be felt for decades to come, was the establishment of the New Army, which, in turn, gave rise to warlordism.

On the other hand, the failure of the reform movement gave great impetus to revolutionary forces within China. Changes within the establishment were seen to be largely hopeless, and the overthrow of the whole Qing government increasingly appeared to be the only viable way to save China. Such sentiments directly contributed to the success of the Chinese Revolution in 1911, barely a decade later.

Differing Interpretations

Views of the Hundred Days' Reform have grown increasingly more complex and nuanced. The traditional view portrayed the reformers as heroes and the conservative elites, particularly the Empress Dowager Cixi, as villains unwilling to reform because of their selfish interests.

However, some historians in the late 20th century have taken views that are more favorable to the conservatives and less favorable to the reformers. In this view, Kang Youwei and his allies were hopeless dreamers unaware of the political realities in which they operated. This view argues that the conservative elites were not opposed to change and that practically all of the reforms that were proposed were eventually implemented.

For example, Sterling Seagrave, in his book "The Dragon Lady", argues that there were several reasons why the reforms failed. Chinese political power at the time was firmly in the hands of the ruling Manchu nobility. The highly xenophobic Ironhats faction dominated the Grand Council and were seeking ways to expel all Western influence from China. When implementing reform, the Guangxu Emperor by-passed the Grand Council and appointed four reformers to advise him. These reformers were chosen after a series of interviews, including the interview of Kang Youwei, who was rejected by the Emperor and had far less influence than Kang's later boasting would indicate. At the suggestion of the reform advisors, the Guangxu Emperor also held secret talks with former Japanese Prime Minister Ito Hirobumi with the aim of using his experience in the Meiji Restoration to lead China through similar reforms.

It has also been suggested, controversially, that Kang Youwei actually did a great deal of harm to the cause by his perceived arrogance in the eyes of the conservatives. Rumours about potential repercussions, many of them false, made their way to the Grand Council, and were one of the factors in their decision to stage a coup against the Emperor. Kang, like many of the reformers, grossly under-estimated the reactionary nature of the vested interests involved.

The Emperor set about to enact his reforms largely bypassing the powerful Grand Council. The councilors, angry at the Emperor's actions and fearful of losing the political power they had, then turned to the Empress Dowager Cixi to remove the emperor from power. Many, though not all, of the reforms were cancelled. The Council, now confident in their power, pushed for the execution of the reformers, an action that was carried out ruthlessly.

According to the research of Taiwan’s scholar Lei Chiasheng in 2004 [雷家聖《力挽狂瀾：戊戌政變新探》，台北:萬卷樓，2004.] Verify credibility|date=October 2008, During the period of Hundred Days' Reform, on September 11,Japanese prime minister Ito Hirobumi(伊藤博文) went to China. Almost at the same time, British missionary Timothy Richard also went to Beijing due to Kang Youwei(康有為)’s invitation. Timothy Richard suggested that China should hand over some political power to Ito Hirobumi in order to help Chinese reforms. [ Timothy Richard ,"Forty-five years in China", Chapter 12] Moreover, on September 18, Timothy Richard lobbied Kang Youwei for the plan of “united-states”(合邦). Kang accepted his suggestion and asked Yang Shenxiu(楊深秀) and Song bolu(宋伯魯) to report the plan to Guangxu Emperor (光緒帝). [康有為《康南海自訂年譜》，台北文海出版社，p.67.] On September 20, Yang Shenxiu suggested Guangxu Emperor unite China, USA, UK and Japan. [楊深秀〈山東道監察御史楊深秀摺〉，《戊戌變法檔案史料》，北京中華書局，1959，p.15.「臣尤伏願我皇上早定大計，固結英、美、日本三國，勿嫌『合邦』之名之不美。」] On the next day, September 21, Song bolu also suggested Guangxu Emperor unite these four countries and commend these four countries’ military, taxes and diplomacy to one hundred persons. [宋伯魯〈掌山東道監察御史宋伯魯摺〉，《戊戌變法檔案史料》，北京中華書局，1959，p.170.「渠(李提摩太)之來也，擬聯合中國、日本、美國及英國為合邦，共選通達時務、曉暢各國掌故者百人，專理四國兵政稅則及一切外交等事。」] In fact, this suggestion was clearly impossible to attain. It was Ito Hirobumi and Timothy Richard’s trick to seduce China handing over national rights. Cixi found this trick and understood the dangerous situation. Finally, she started the coup to stop the plot.Dubious|Hundred_Days'_Reform#Apparent_plot_to_unite_China.2C_USA.2C_UK_and_Japan|date=October 2008

After the coup, British ambassador Sir C. MacDonald reported the Chinese situation to British government in October 13,1898. He said that Chinese reforms had been damaged by Kang youwei and his friends’ silly actions. [ "Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of China, Presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty" (London,1899.3) No.401. P.303. ] British diplomatist Baurne also said that Kang youwei was a dreamer and confused by Timothy Richard’s sweet words. Baurne thought Timothy Richard was a plotter and offered some stupid suggestions to Kang youwei. [ "British Foreign Office files(F.O.)" 17/1718,September 26, 1898.] Basically,This plot was Timothy Richard’s personal action. British government and US government were innocent.Because Timothy Richard’s partner Ito Hirobumi was Japanese former prime minister,Japanese government should know this plan.

ee also

* History of China
* Qing Dynasty

References

* Based on an article at: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html.
* 雷家聖（Lei Chiasheng）《力挽狂瀾－戊戌政變新探》，台北：萬卷樓，2004 ISBN 957-739-507-4

Notes