Khandoba

Hdeity infobox|

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Caption = Khandoba (center) in his four armed form, the two metal images depict him with his wives. The sanctum of the Jejuri temple.
Name = Khandoba
Devanagari =
Sanskrit_Transliteration = Khaṇḍoba
Pali_Transliteration =
Tamil_script =
Affiliation = Avatar of Shiva
God_of =
Abode =
Mantra =
Weapon = Trishula, Sword
Consort = Mhalsa and Banai
Mount = Horse
Planet =

Khandoba, (IAST: Khaṇḍoba) also known as Khanderao, Khanderaya and Malhari Martand is a regional Hindu deity, worshipped as Mārtanda Bhairava -a form of Shiva, mainly in the Deccan plateau of India. He is the most popular family deity in Maharashtra, the patron deity of warrior, farming and herding castes, the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests. The cult of Khandoba has linkages with Vaishanva and Jain traditions, "People of India" By Kumar Suresh Singh, B. V. Bhanu, Anthropological Survey of India [http://books.google.com/books?id=BsBEgVa804IC&pg=PR59&ots=0k-6kVc2Up&dq=Khandoba+god&as_brr=3&sig=9XwC8XqDCc18S0l3xOKwK8kIERA#PPR59,M1] p.ix] and also assimilates all communities irrespective of caste, including Muslims. He is sometimes identified with Mallanna of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka. The worship of Khandoba developed during the 9th/10th centuries from a folk deity into a composite god pocessing the attributes of Shiva ['Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."] , Bhairava, Surya [cite book |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=ISBN 0-19-505742-2 p. 205] and Karttikeya (Skanda). [For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, cite book |last=Gupta |first=Shakti M.|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva|year=1988 |publisher=Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.|location=Bombay |isbn=81-7039-186-5 "Preface", and p. 40.] He is depicted either in the form of a Lingam [For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.] , or as an image riding on a bull or a horse. The foremost centre of Khandoba worship is Jejuri in Maharashtra. The legends of Khandoba, found in the text "Malhari Mahatmya" and also narrated in folk songs, revolve around the god's victory over demons Mani-malla and the god's marriages.

Etymology and other names

The name "Khandoba" comes from the words "khadga"(sword), the weapon used by Khandoba to kill the demons and "ba"(father). "Khanderaya" means "king Khandoba". The name "Mallari" or "Malhari" is split as "Malla" and "ari" (enemy), thus meaning "enemy of the demon Malla". Malhatri Mahatmya records Martanda Bhairava, pleased with the bravery of Malla, takes the name "Mallari" (the enemy of Malla). [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.314] Other names include Khandu Gavda, Jejurica Vani.

Iconography

In a popular oleograph representation of Khandoba, [Stanley p.284] Mhalsa is seated in front of Khandoba on his white horse. Mhalsa is piercing a demon's chest with a spear, while a dog is biting his thigh and the horse hitting his head. The other demon is grabbing the reins of the horse and attacking Khandoba with a club as Khandoba is dismounting the horse and attacking the demon with his sword. In other representations, Khandoba is seen seated on a horse with the heads of demons, trod under the horse's hooves or their heads under Khandoba' knees. [Stanley p.288] In murtis (idols), Khandoba or Mailara is depicted as having four arms carrying a damaru (drum), Trishula (trident), Bhandara-patra (turmeric powder filled bowl) and khadga (sword). Khandoba's images are often dressed as a Maratha sardar, [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.303] or a Muslim Pathan.

Legends

Legends of Khandoba, generally tell about the battle between the deity and demons Malla and Mani. The principle written source of the legend is "Malhari Mahatmya",which claims to be from the chapter "Kshetra-kanda" of Sanskrit text Brahmanda Purana, but is not included in standard editions of the Purana. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.103] R.C. Dhere and Sontheimer suggests that the Sanskrit Mahatmya was composed around 1460-1510 AD, mostly by a Deshastha Brahmin, whose Khandoba is the Kula-swami (Family deity). [Sontheimer in Bakker pp.105-6] A version is also available in Marathi by Siddhapal Kesasri (1585). [Sontheimer in Bakker p.105] Other later texts include "Jayadri Mahatmya" and "Martanda Vijaya" by Gangadhara (1821). [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.330] Though other sources are the oral stories of the Vaghyas, bards of the god. [Stanley p.272,293]

The synopsis of the legend is as below: The demon Malla and his younger brother Mani, who had gained the boon of invincibility from Brahma, created chaos on the earth, harassing the sages. When the seven sages approached Shiva for protection after Indra and Vishnu confessed their incapacity, Shiva assumed the form (avatar) of "Martand Bhairava", as the Mahatmya calls Khandoba, riding the Nandi bull leading an army of the gods. Martanda Bhairava is described as shining like the gold and sun, covered in turmeric, three-eyed with a crescent moon on the forehead. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.118] The demon was slaughtered by the gods and finally Khandoba killed the two demons. While dying, Mani offers his white horse to Khandoba as an act of repentance and asks for a boon that he be present in every shrine of Khandoba, betterment of human-kind and offering of goat-flesh, thus he is transformed into a demi-god. Malla, on asked if he asked by the deity, he asks for destruction of the world and human-flesh and angered by the demon's request, he is decapitated, and his head falls at the temple' stairs where it will trampled by devotees' feet. It further describes how two Lingas appeared at Prempuri, the place where the demons were killed. [Stanley p.272-77] [For a detailed synopsis of Malhari Mahtmya, see Sontheimer in Bakker p.116-26]

Oral stories continue the process of "Sanskritization" of Khandoba - his elevation from a folk deity to a deity of the classical Hindu pantheon - Shiva, initiated by the texts. Khandoba, his wives Mhalsa and Banai are identified with Shiva, Parvati and Ganga, both being considered Shiva's wives in classical Hinduism. [For Ganga, considered a wife of Shiva [http://books.google.com/books?id=0FvH1aCXETwC&pg=PA167&dq=Ganga+Shiva+consort&as_brr=3&sig=ACfU3U1YGY_mdfX7ZFQaCApZk-lNOoNPHg The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions By Anna King, John Brockington p.167] ] Hegadi Pradhan, the minister and brother-in-law of Khandoba and brother of Lingavat Vani Mhalsa, [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.328] the faithful dog that helps Khandoba kill demons, the horse gifted by Mani and demon-brothers are considered avatars of Vishnu, Krishna, Nandi and demons Madhu-Kaitabha respectively. [Stanley p.278] Other myth variants narrate that Khandoba defeats a single demon Manimalla, who offers his white horse sometimes called Mani to the god. [Stanley p.278] Other legends depict Mhalsa (or Parvati) and Banai or Banu (or Ganga) futilely helping Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani, every drop of which was creating a new demon. Finally the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood. Sometimes, Mhalsa or rarely Banai is described as seated behind Khandoba, on the horse fighting with a sword or spear. [Stanley p.280-4]

The legends portray Khandoba as a king who rules from his fortress of Jejuri and holds court where he distributes gold. Also, king Khandoba goes on hunting expeditions, which often turn into an "erotic adventure", and subsequent marriages. [Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.116]

Wives

Khandoba is a much-married god with wives from many communities, who serve as cultural links to the communities. He has five wives, Mhalsa and Banai/Banu/Banubai being the most important. [Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.116] While Khandoba's first wife Mhalsa is from the high caste - Lingavat merchant (Vani) community, his second wife Banai is a Dhangar (shepherd caste). Mhalsa has had a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba, Banai, on the other hand, has a love marriage by capture with the god. Mhalsa is described ugly, jealous and a good cook; Banai is erotic, resolute, but doesn't even know to cook. Often folk songs tell of their quarrels. Mhalsa represents "culture" and Banai - "nature". The god king Khandoba stands between them. [Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.117-8]

Khandoba's third wife, Rambhai Simpin, a tailor woman from Belsare village who was a heavenly nymph or "devangana" and is sometimes identified with Banai. She is a prototype of the Muralis - the girls "married" to Khandoba. She is the wife who goes for hunting with her Lord. The fourth wife Phulai Malin, from a gardener caste, is a devout devotee of Khandoba and is visited by him at "Davna Mal" (field of southernwood), a herb said to be dear to Khandoba. The fifth wife, Candai Bhagavin, is a Muslim or a Telin, member of oilpresser caste. [Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.118] Apart from these, Muralis - girls offered to Khandoba, are considered as wives of the Lord.

Other associations and identifications

Mallana (Mallikaarjuna) of Andhra Pradesh, Mailara of Karnataka are sometimes identified with Khandoba (Mallari, Malhari, Mairaj). He is also associted with Bhairava, who is connected with Brahmanicide (murder of a Brahmin). [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p. 300] Devotees emphasize that Khandoba is a full avatar of Shiva, and not a partial avatar like Bhairava or Virabhadra. He accepts the attributes of the demon king - his horse, weapons and royal insignia. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.332]

Sontheimer stresses on the association of Khandoba with clay and terminite mounds. Oral legends tell of Khandoba's murtis being found in termite mounds or "made of earth". [Sontheimer in Bakker p.110] Martanda Bhairava is a combination of the sun god Surya and Shiva, Martanda being a name of Surya. The sun, gold and turmeric are often associated with the rituals of Khandoba. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.113] Sontheimer associates worship of the Sun as termite mounds for fertility and his role as a healer to Khandoba's role as granter of fertility in marriages and healing powers of turmeric, which he holds. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.113] Other symbols associated with Khandoba are the dog and horse.

Worship

The cult of Khandoba in the Deccan principally consists of peasant classes: Marathas and Kunabis, shepherd Dhangars, ex-criminal Ramoshis, the former untouchable Mahars and Mangs, fisher-folk Kolis, "balutedar" castes like gardeners and tailors and nominally a few Brahmins and Muslims. [Stanley p.271] He is worshipped by tribals, "untouchables", Brahmins, farmers, robbers, kings, merchants, pastroral castes, Jains, Lingavats and even Muslims. He is viewed as a "king" of his followers. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.104] Deshastha Brahmins, [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.300] as well as royal Maratha families like Holkars and Gaikwads worship Khandoba as their family deity (Kuldevta). His temples resemble forts, the capital of his kingdom being Jejuri. The preists are Guravs, not Brahmins. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.303]

Rituals and modes of worship

Khandoba is believed to be a "kadak" (fierce) deity, who causes troubles if not propitated properly as per the family duties. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.332-3] Khandoba is worshipped with Turmeric (Bhandār), Bel fruit-leaves, onions and other vegetables.cite book | last = Underhill | first = Muriel Marion | title = The Hindu Religious Year | publisher = Asian Educational Services | date = 1991 | pages = p. 111 | isbn = 8120605233] The deity is offered "puran poli" - a sweet or a simpler dish called "bharit rodga" of onion and brinjal. [Stanley p.296] Mostly a vegetarian "naivedya" (offering of food) is offered to Khandoba in the temples, though almost most devotees consider him a non-vegetarain and a goat flesh offering is made to the deity outside the temple. [Stanley p.284] An important part of the Khandoba-cult is "navas", a vow to perform service to the god in return for a boon of good harvest, male child, financial success etc. On fulfillment of the navas, Khandoba was offered children or the devotee would afflicit pain by hook-swinging or fire-walking. [Stanley p.293] But the most faithful bhaktas are considered to be greedy only for the company of their Lord, Khandoba is also called "bhukela" - hungry for such true "bhaktas" (devotees) in Martanda Vijaya. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.313]

Boys called "Vāghyā" and girls called "Muraḹi" were formerly dedicated to Khandoba, but now the practice of marrying girls to Khandoba is illegal. The Vaghyas act as bards of Khandoba and identify themselves with as the dogs of Khandoba, while Muralis act as his courtesans ("devanganas" - nymphs or devadasis). The Vaghyas and their female counterparts Muralis, sing and dance in honour of Khandoba and narrate his stories on "jagrans" - all night songfests, which are sometimes held after navas fulfillment. [Stanley p.293] Another custom was ritual-suicide by "Vira"s (heroes) in the cult. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.308] According to legend, an "untouchable" Mang (Matanga) sacrified himself for the foundation of the temple at Jejuri to persuade God to stay at Jejuri forever. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.313] Other practices in the cult include belief that Khandoba possesses the body of a Vaghya or "devrsi" (shaman). [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.302] Another ritual in the cult is an act of chain-breaking in fulfillment of a vow or an annual family rite, the chain is identified with the snake around Shiva's neck, which was cut by the demons in the fight. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.114]

The Sanskrit "Malhari Mahatmya" suggests offerings of incense, lights, betel and animals to Khandoba. The Marathi version mentions offerings of meat and the worship by "chedapatadi" -"causing themselves to be cut", hook-swinging and self-mortification by "vira"s. Marathi version calls this form of bhakti (devotion) as "ugra" (violent, demonic) "bhakti". "Martanda vijaya" narrates about "Rakshashi bhakti" (demonic worship) by animal sacrifice and self - torture. Possession of Khandoba, in form of a wind, is lower demonic worship ("pishachi worship"). Sattvic worship, the purest form of worship, is told to be feeding Khandoba in form of a Brahmin. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.330]

Muslim veneration

Khandoba is also a figure of respect and worship to Muslims, and this affiliation is visible in the style of his temples. He is called Mallu or Ajmat Khan (Rautray) by Muslim devotees, and many times portrayed as being a Muslim himself. Some of these distinguishing Muslim features include his usual appearance as that of a Paṭhān on horseback, one of his wives being a Muslim, and that his horse-keeper is a Muslim in Jejuri. The Mārtaṇḍa Vijaya expressly states that his devotees mainly comprise of Muslims. The worship of Khandoba had received royal patronage by Ibrahim II, which consisted of the reinstatement of the annual jatra and the right of pilgrims to perform rituals at the Naldurg temple. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp. 325-7 and Waghorne, Joanne p. 452] "Malhari Mahatmya" even records Muslims ("mleccha") as the god's bhaktas (devotees), who call him as Malluka Pathan or Mallu Khan. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.116]

The twelve temples

The twelve principal centres of worship of Khandoba or "jagrut kshetras", were the deity is called to be awake or "jagrut", are as follows:
#Jejuri: The foremost center of worship of Khandoba [For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.] . It is situated 48 km from Pune, Maharashtra. There are two temples: The first is an ancient temple known as "Kadepathar". Kadepathar is difficult to climb and is believed to the "Dev Gadi" (seat of God) of Khandoba, as it is believed that Khandoba appeared first on earth in this place. The second one is the more famous temple, which it is easy to climb and is built by Dada Holkar or Ahilyabai Holkar. This temple has about 450 steps, 18 "Kamani" (big stone invitation doors) and 350 "Dipmalas" (tall stone oil lamps holders). Both temples are fort-like structures.
#Pal (Pembar) temple situated near Satara, Maharashtra.
#Shegud, Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra.
#Komarvali, warngal district, andhrapradesh.
#Nimgaon Dawadi, Pune district, Maharashtra.
#satare, aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
#Naldurg, Osmanabad district, Maharashtra.
#Mangsuli, Belgaum district, Karnataka.
#Mailara Linga, Dharwad district, Karnataka.
#Maltesh or Mailar - Devargudda, Dharwad district, Karnataka.
#Mannamailar, Bellary, Karnataka.
#Mailarpur Penbar in Bidar district, Karnataka.

Festivals

A six-day festival, from the first to sixth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Margashirsha, in honour of Khandoba is celebrated at Jejuri, to commemorate the fight with demons Mani-Malla and on the sixth day (Champa-Shashti), Khandoba is believed to have slew the demons. A jatra is held in Pember on Champa-shasthi, and festival continues till the new moon day. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.108] Another festival Somvati Amavasya, that is a new-moon day that falls on a Monday, is celebrated in Jejuri. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.127] In Pali (Pember), the ritual of the marriage of Khandoba with Mhalsa is annually performed. Turmeric is offered to the deities. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.308]

Development of the cult

The cult of Khandoba, a folk religion, reflects the effect of Vedic Rudra, the Puranic Shiva worshipped as Linga in Brahmanical religion and Nath and LIngavat sects. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.332-3] Khandoba may be a product of the Vedic Rudra, who like Khandoba was associated with robbers, horses and dogs. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp.301-2] The cult of Khandoba is at least older than 12th century, which can be determined by references in Jain and Lingavat texts and inscriptions. A 12th century Jain author Brahmashiva claims that a Jain, who died in battle after a display of his valour, was later named as Mailara. By the 13th century, wide worship of Malhari or Mailara is observed by kings, Brahmins, simple folk and warriors. With the rise of Muslim empire, classical Hindu temples fell into ruin, giving rise to the folk religion such as of Khandoba. Chakradhara (c.1270) remarks, 'by the end of the Kali Yuga, temples of Vishnu and Shiva will be destroyed, but those of Mailara will stay'. A 1369 AD inscription at Ailoni near Warangal tells an account of Mallari different from Malhari Mahatmya - Shiva helped the epic hero Arjuna kill the demon Malla, thus acquiring the title of Mallari. Mailara was the family deity of Kakatiya dynasty (1083–1323 AD), a text from their rule records the self-torture rituals of Mailara-devotees and describes the deity. Throughout his development, Mailara is looked upon as a lower manifestation of Ishvara (God) by and Lingayat and Maharashtrian bhakti saints. Sayana traces the name "Malhari" to Taittiriya Samhita, Malhari is explained as enemy (ari) of Malha(Prajapati) - an epithet of Rudra, who is considered a rival to deity Prajapati. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.106-7]

Malhari Mahatmya states that Khandoba first appeared on Champashasti, which was a Sunday, at Premapur, which identified as Pember (Adimailar, Mailarapur) near Bidar. Marathi traditions tell that Khandoba came originally from Premapuri, now Pember in Karnataka, then went to Naldurg, Pali and finally to Jejuri. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.105] Sontheimer suggests that the cult of Mailara may have originated in Pember and then spread to Maharashtra, merging with the cult of Khandaka - the patron yaksha (demi-god) of Paithan giving it it's distinct Marashtrain characteristics. Maharashtrains call the god - "Kanadya Khanderaya", the god from Karnataka. The cult possibly was spread by Lingayat, Jain and other merchants, associted with Mailara-Khandoba, to other parts of the Deccan. Besides Mailara, Khandoba is identified with other deities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and is called as Mallanna, Mairala, and Mallu Khan. [Sontheimer in Bakker pp.108-9] Other traditions like Shakta cults of folk goddesses were assimilated into the Khandoba cult, identifying the goddesses with Khandoba's wives Mhalsa or Banai. [Sontheimer in Bakker p.116]

In Marathi literature

Marathi literature has a mixed reaction to the cult of Khandoba. Naranjanamadhva (1790) in stotra (hymn) dedicated to Khandoba calls him "an illustrious king with rich clothes and a horse with a saddle studded with jewels", who was once "an ascetic beggar who ride an old bull and carried an ant-bitten club (khatvanga)" - a humourous take on the Puranic Shiva. In another instance, he is called a ghost by a Christian missionary and Konastha Brahmin in a debate against Deshastha Brahmin. Another Brahmin remarks with scorn about the impurity of the Khandoba temple, visited by Sudras and whose preists are non-Brahmin Guravs. The Marathi term "khel-khandoba", which is taken to mean "devastation" in general usage, refers to the possesssion of devotee by the god in his cult. [Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.332-3]

References

Further reading

*Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dhallapiccola
* "King of Hunters, Warriors and shepherds and essays on Khandoba" by Gunther-Dietz SONTHEIMER. Edited by ANNE FELDHAUS, ADITYA MALAIK, HEIDRUN BRUCKNER 1997, 353pp. b&w illus., bibl. index (ISBN 81-7304-018-4)
*cite book |last=Mate |first=M. S. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Temples and Legends of Maharashtra |year=1988 |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |location=Bombay |isbn=
* "Criminal Gods and Demon Devotees: Essays on the Guardians of Popular Hinduism" By Alf Hiltebeitel. Published 1989. SUNY Press. 491 pages. ISBN:0887069819.
** Ch. 10: "The Captulation of Mani: A Conversion Myth in the Cult of Khandoba". John. M. Stanley.
** Ch. 11: "Between Ghost and God: Folk Deity of the Deccan" by Gunther D. Sontheimer p.299-337 [http://books.google.com/books?id=CLmuJhU3wC8C&pg=PA299&dq=Between+Ghost+and+God+Sontheimer&ei=LFVwR-f4NIyEiQHq5_B1&sig=_KDFDF3dMBnCxpRu5wSOkVP1tus]
* "The History of Sacred Places in India as Reflected in Traditional Literature" Edited By Hans Bakker. "God as King for All: The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya and it's context." by Gunther Sontheimer pp.103-130 [http://books.google.com/books?id=McwUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA129&dq=khandoba&as_brr=3&sig=ehrDuvjgTUjPr6SBpxYdUXEGjy0#PPP1,M1]
* "Images of Women in Maharashtrian Literature and Religion" By Anne Feldhaus. "All the God's wives" by Gunther Sontheimer, pp.115-146. [http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ooV3Rz9zQvQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA115&dq=khandoba&ots=jwz4-4kC47&sig=QY0lyWCAG-81tdH-KM1efSVL7xw#PPA117,M1]

External links

* [http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2000/06/25/stories/1325063k.htm Article about Khandoba in newspaper "The Hindu"]