Beatitudes

The Beatitudes (from Latin "beatus", meaning "blessed" or "happy" [cite web
url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=beatitude
title = beatitude
last = Harper
first = Douglas
date =
work = [http://www.etymonline.com/ Online Etymology Dictionary]
accessdate = 2008-09-09 ] ) is the beginning portion of the Sermon on the Mount of the Gospel of Matthew. Some are also recorded in the Gospel of Luke. In the section, Jesus describes the qualities of the inhabitants of the Kingdom of heaven and indicates how each is or will be blessed. The Beatitudes do not describe many separate individuals, but rather all the specific characteristics each must have to experience heaven. Biblical scholar and author Andrej Kodjak has stated that this opening of the sermon was designed to shock the audience as a deliberate inversion of standard values, but this shock value has been lost today due to the commonness of the text. [cite book | last=Kodjak | first=Andrej | title=A Structural Analysis of the Sermon on the Mount | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | location=New York | month=January | year=1987 | isbn=0-8992-5159-5]

The blessed nature that these characteristics endow is not meant to be considered from a worldly perspective, but from a psychological perspective. The word traditionally translated into English as "blessed" or "happy" is in the Greek original μακαριος (makarios). A more literal translation into contemporary English may be "possessing an inward contentedness and joy that is not affected by the physical circumstances". The Beatitudes imply that people not normally considered blessed on Earth are in fact blessed by God and will experience the Kingdom of Heaven.

These verses are quoted early in the Divine Liturgy of John Chrysostom as part of the sequence called the Third Antiphon, or the Third Typical Antiphon, it is common in the Russian and Monsatic Use of the Liturgy, which continues to be the liturgy most often used in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Similar sayings are also recorded in a few of the Dead Sea Scrolls and in Jewish sources predating the Christian era. Four of the beatitudes are found in Luke's Sermon on the Plain as well, which many scholars feel is the same event as the Sermon on the Mount. In the biblical interpretation theory of textual criticism, these beatitudes are generally seen as originating in the Q document and, within the larger Sermon, an invention of Matthew and Luke. Luke's Sermon has four "woes" in addition to the four beatitudes, and Matthew uses a similar four "woes" elsewhere for use against the Pharisees. Biblical scholar and author Robert H. Gundry has argued that Matthew wanted to keep the eightfold structure and consequently had to create four additional sayings. [cite book | last=Gundry | first=Robert H. | authorlink=Robert H. Gundry | title=Matthew: a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art | location=Grand Rapids | publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | month=February | year=1982 | isbn=0-8028-3549-X]

Content

Matthew 5:3-12:While opinions vary as to exactly how many distinct statements the Beatitudes should be divided into, normally ranging from eight to ten, most scholars consider there to be only eight. These eight of Matthew follow a simple pattern of naming a group of people and the reward they would receive for being part of that group.

The beatitudes present in both Matthew and Luke are:
*The poor (Matthew has "poor in spirit"). The text says that theirs "is the kingdom of heaven".
*Mourners (Luke has "those who are weeping"). The text says that they will "be comforted" (Luke has "will laugh").
*The hungry (Matthew has "hunger and thirst after righteousness"). The text says that they will "be filled" (Luke has "be satisfied").
*Those persecuted for seeking righteousness (rather than "righteousness", Luke has "followers of the Son of Man"). The text says that theirs "is the kingdom of heaven".

The beatitudes only present in Matthew are:
*The meek. The text says that they will "inherit the earth".
*The merciful. The text says that they will "obtain mercy".
*The pure of heart . The text says that they will "see God".
*The peacemakers. The text says that they will be called "the children of God".

The last of these eight is followed by what appears to be commentaries on it, with Matthew's, according to author R.T. France, integrating elements from Isaiah 51:7. [cite book | last=France | first=R.T. | title=The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary | location=Leicester | publisher=Send the Light | edition=1 | month=October | year=1987 | isbn=0-8028-0063-7] Among textual critics, this is seen as an attempt by Matthew and Luke to re-interpret quotations from Q that do not quite fit with their theology if read literally. That the commentary discusses the persecution of Christians, who clearly would not be able to consider Jesus' crucifixion until after it had actually happened, is regarded by most scholars as indicating the timeframe for when Matthew and Luke were written, although more fundamentalist Christians believe that this commentary is an example of prophecy. Matthew refers to only verbal attacks, while Luke also refers to excommunication, which scholars feel indicatesFact|date=July 2008 the differences in situation between the writers.

A number of scholars, most significantly, Augustine of Hippo, have been convinced that there should actually be seven Beatitudes, since seven has historically been considered the holy number. The beatitude about the contrite heart is generally believed to have originated in Psalm 24 (as a manifestation of verses 3–5), with which it is remarkably similar, and so some believe that this was the beatitude that was later added to the other seven. Augustine himself felt that it was the eighth—about persecution of the righteous—which was the addition, since it partly parallels the first. Most modern scholars do not consider that there were originally seven, but instead propose that there were originally four: those shared with Luke.

Parallels and differences

Like several scholars, Eduard Schweizer feels that a large part of Matthew's variance from Luke is down to Matthew not approving of asceticism as a way into heaven in and of itself.cite book | last=Schweizer | first=Eduard | authorlink=Eduard Schweizer | title=The Good News According to Matthew | location=Atlanta | publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | edition=New Ed | month=June | year=1975 | isbn=0-8042-0251-6] Hence Matthew changes what Luke has as ordinary physical degradations into spiritual ones—by changing "poor" into "poor in spirit", and "hungry" into "hunger . . . after righteousness". Nevertheless, Matthew's "poor in spirit" also occurs in the Dead Sea Scrolls, apparently being seen by the Qumran community as something important, and those seeking harmony between Matthew and Luke consider that poverty is not only a physical event but a spiritual one as well, and so "poor in spirit" is interpreted by them in this sense rather than it meaning "courage", "religious awareness",, or "the Holy Ghost". Those seeking harmony between the two sets also interpret "mourner" as "the oppressed" rather than as a mourner. The other variations are usually regarded as an attempt to make the beatitudes in question more closely parallel the Old Testament, with, for example, "hungry" becoming "hunger and thirst" to parallel Isaiah 49:10.religion

Some of the beatitudes can be found in parts of the Old Testament; for example, the beatitude concerning the poor is also found, with Luke's wording, in Psalm 37 (v. 11). Author David Hill speculates that the beatitude about the "pure in heart" could actually be a mistranslation of Isaiah 61:1, and thus should have read "only the contrite will see God".cite book | last=Hill | first=David | title=New Century Bible Commentary: Gospel of Matthew | location=Grand Rapids | publisher=Eerdmans | month=June | year=1981 | isbn=0-8028-1886-2] Since the beatitude which precedes it, concerning mourners, ever so slightly parallels Isaiah 61:2, and in a number of early manuscripts of Matthew these two beatitudes appear in reverse order, Schweizer feels the current order was implemented to better reflect Isaiah 61:1–2. In addition to such direct parallels, there are similar themes; for example, the idea of a divinely significant figure ending a fast is commonly used as a metaphor, for example, appearing in Isaiah 55, Jeremiah 31, and Psalm 107. While not a mainstream view, author Hans Betz feels that the beatitude concerning the "poor" can be traced back to Socrates' notion of enkrateia, explaining that the philosopher was one who had no interest in wealth—an idea adopted by the influential Cynics, who rejected wealth and saw poverty as the only route to freedom. [cite book | last=Betz | first=Hans Dieter | title=Essays on the Sermon on the Mount (translations by Laurence Welborn) | publisher=Fortress Press | location=Philadelphia | year=1985 | isbn=0-8006-0726-0]

Interpretations

"Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth."

Although the beatitude concerning the meek has been much praised, even by some non-Christians such as Mahatma Gandhi, some individuals have negative views of it:
*Baron d'Holbach felt that it reflected the interests of Christians when they were a small and powerless sect, abandoning it whenever they gained power.
*Friedrich Nietzsche saw the verse as embodying the "slave morality" of Christianity. [ cite book | last=Nietzsche | first=Friedrich | authorlink=Friedrich Nietzsche | title=On the Genealogy of Morals | year=1887]
*James Joyce, William Blake, and Theodore Dreiser condemned it for advocating a "life without striving".

According to non-pacifists, the word "peacemakers" does not imply pacifism, instead applying to people who cause peace where once there was conflict. As such, this beatitude formed the heart of Augustine's argument in favour of a just war, arguing that a war that brought about greater peace was justified. The first century was in the middle of the Pax Romana and actual wars were rare, so according to author Howard Clarke, this verse may have been referring to those who merely calm disputes within the community. [cite book | last=Clarke | first=Howard W | title=The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel | location=Bloomington | publisher=Indiana University Press | month=July | year=2003 | isbn=0-2532-1600-1] Although traditionally the passage is regarded as stating that such "peacemakers" will be "children of God", "Sons of God" is more accurate—Martin Luther and other early Protestant translators viewed the term "Son of God" as an actual genealogical relationship, rather than simply a description of someone as being generally spiritual, and hence felt it could only be applied to Jesus.

Some Christians have typically seen the commentary following the beatitudes as somewhat disconcerting in its soteriology, since it emphasises how good deeds can result in eternal rewards, and barely mentions any need for faith. Some, such as Hill, attempt to resolve this by reinterpreting divine reward as "good repute". An interesting feature of the commentary as far as scholars are concerned is the manner in which it compares the audience to "prophets", pointing to similarities between Jesus and the Essenes, who called each other "prophets", though, as suggested by Schweizer, this may simply be a reference to Jeremiah 31:34 and Isaiah 54:13, which prophesy that one day all will be equal to the prophets.

Many people mistake the significance of the beatitude concerning hunger, as while now hunger is viewed as a symptom of poverty, at the time in which the Gospels are set, fasting was commonly regarded as a sign of righteousness. The later reference to people being "persecuted" for their "righteousness" is actually used in the perfect tense, indicating that some of the people Jesus was addressing were seen as already having been persecuted. This beatitude explicitly referring to persecution has often been cited as an argument for toleration and acceptance, with Locke prominently citing it in his "A Letter Concerning Toleration", but inquisitors disputed this argument, since they regarded the term "righteousness" not to apply to anyone who was an enemy of the Church.

One interpretation of narrative theologians is that the Beatitudes provide a corrective against an upside-down view of the power structures of the world that has been all but universally taken for granted. That is, the powers and principalities of this world - primarily referencing, but not meant to be exclusive to political, military and economic forces - appear to be the inheritors of power and dominion. In the Beatitudes, however, Jesus explains that the reality of things as seen from God's perspective is that it is the powerless who are the inheritors of the future. It is the meek, the poor, those who suffer loss, those on the bottom of the social ladder, who will rule in the rightside-up kingdom of God. Jesus is attempting to jog his listeners' assumptions regarding security and hope, showing them that the kingdom of God is for those who hope in God and not in the power structures offered by the world. Though not specifically referenced, and explained with much less poetry, these same themes are strongly espoused by the Apostle Paul in his letters to the Colossians and to the Ephesians. As for a more modern example, such an interpretation of the Beatitudes can be found in "Resident Aliens", by Stanley Hauerwas & William Willimon. In their book Jesus is explained to be showing his audience that "In God's kingdom, the poor are royalty, the sick are blessed." "The Beatitudes are not a strategy for achieving a better society ... they are an indication ... of life in the kingdom of God ... to produce a shock within our imaginations ... to see life ... in a radical new way." Similarly, John H. Yoder, in his "Politics of Jesus" refers to Matthew 5 as part of a "call on the disciples of Jesus to renounce participation in the interplay of egoisms". This entire work attempts to show that such politics of Jesus is the entire basis behind Christian pacifism - that the Jesus who has already conquered evil now calls us to follow him through the same heavenly humility.

Cultural references

*A scene in the well-known play Godspell consists of the cast members running up to Jesus, each with a line beginning one of the beatitudes (eg. "Blessed are the poor in spirit!"), which Jesus finishes ("for theirs is the kingdom of heaven"). After the last beatitude, the character of John/Judas ends the scene with a dark prediction: "Blessed are you! When men shall revile you, and persecute you, and say all manner of evil against you falsely." The cast is stunned into an awkward silence by this line, and Jesus then attempts to cheer them up in the next scene and song.
*The Sting song "All This Time" (The Soul Cages) contains the line, "Blessed are the poor; for they shall inherit the earth. Better to be poor than be a fat man in the eye of a needle."
*There is a song entitled Beatitudes written by Paul Winter on his album "Missa Gaia/Earth Mass".
*In the documentary "Let Us Now Praise Famous Men", James Agee quotes the beatitudes in the chapter entitled "Country Letter."

As one of the most famous of Beatitudes, "the meek shall inherit the earth" has appeared many times in works of art and popular culture:

*The title of a song in the "Little Shop of Horrors" musical
*The title of a song on the Frank Zappa album "You Are What You Is" ("The Meek Shall Inherit Nothing")
*The song "Walking in your Footsteps" by The Police contains the line, "They say the meek shall inherit the earth"
*The theme of the Rush album "2112"
*An episode of the "War of the Worlds" television series
*J. B. Priestley's "Midnight of the Desert" contains a discussion of this verse by the characters as does Arnold Bennet's "Anna of the Five Towns"
*Fragment of the verse used in the "Sermon on the Mount (Big Nose)" scene in Monty Python's "Life of Brian" film
*Don Pendleton's Mack Bolan, when reminded that the "meek shall inherit the earth", replied, "Only after the violent have tamed it."
*A line spoken by Rev. David Marshall Lee in the Larry Shue play The Foreigner.
*The Simon and Garfunkel song "Blessed," from their album Sounds of Silence.
*"Try not to forget that the meek inherit earth" is a quote from Staind's song, 'How About You"
*A line in the song "Anything for Jah" by Easy Dub All-Stars
*In the episode of "The Outer Limits", "The Vaccine", "The meek shall inherit the Earth" was used as the end quote.
*A line in the song "The Grind Date" by De La Soul from their album "The Grind Date".
*The title of a poem by Charles Bukowski.
*Title of 1980s album by jazz saxophonist Bobby Watson.
*In the song "1000 More Fools" by Bad Religion in their album No Control
*Comedian Eddie Izzard describes a scenario in his show "Circle", in which the meek conclude that it's about time they actually did inherit the earth, and proceed to do so in an organised, armed revolution.

Other than "blessed are the meek", perhaps the most famous of the Beatitudes is "blessed are the peacemakers":
*It was the personal motto of James I of England
*It is one of the main themes in "The Tale of Melibee", one of "The Canterbury Tales"
*It is quoted in The Godfather Part 3 by Don Altobello (Eli Wallach) after being approached by Vincent Corleone.
*It is quoted three times by Shakespeare, although ironically, in "Henry VI, part 2"; "Richard III"; and "Coriolanus"
*It plays an important role in Herman Melville's "Billy Budd"
*This verse was famously misprinted in the second edition of the Geneva Bible as "blessed are the placemakers"
**The typographic error in the Geneva Bible became parodied in Monty Python's "Life of Brian" where the crowd listening to the sermon mishears it as "blessed are the cheesemakers".
*In television advertising for the third Series of Deadwood, the lead characters were depicted reciting the Beatitudes which were appropriate to their character. (e.g., Cy Tolliver recited "Blessed are the peacemakers")

References

*Albright, W.F. and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." "The Anchor Bible Series." New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
*Davids, Peter H. "Meek Shall Inherit the Earth." "A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature." David Lyle Jeffrey, general editor. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 1992.
*Kissinger, Warren S. "The Sermon on the Mount: A History of Interpretation and Bibliography." Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1975.
*Lapide, Pinchas. The Sermon on the Mount, Utopia or Program for Action? translated from the German by Arlene Swidler. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1986.
*McMurray, Michael. "The Beatitudes: Jesus's guide to happy living." Ballan: Connor Court Publishing, 2006.
*Twomey, M.W. "The Beatitudes." "A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature." David Lyle Jeffrey, general editor. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 1992.
*"Blessed are the Meek" - School Ties 1992 film Head Master quotes to antagonise the protagonist - Daniel Green (played by Brendan Fraser).

External links

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02371a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Eight Beatitudes]
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%205%3A2-10&version=31 Beatitudes in Matthew 5:2-10 (NIV translation, others available)]
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%206%3A20-26&version=31 Beatitudes in Luke 6:20-26 (NIV translation, others available)]
* [http://www.jesuschristsavior.net/Beatitudes.html The Eight Beatitudes of Jesus]
* [http://www.e-water.net/en/beatitudes The Beatitudes] Flash Animation about the Beatitudes.

* For analysis of the Beatitudes as the fulfillment of the natural moral law revealed to Moses see Professor William E. May's article [http://www.christendom-awake.org/pages/may/faith-natural-law.htm "Christian Faith and its "fulfillment" of the Natural Moral Law"] (Michael J. McGivney Professor of Moral Theology, "John Paul II Institute for Studies on Marriage and Family" at The Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C.)

"In his Sermon on the Mount our Lord said, "Do not think that I have come to abolish the law and the prophets. I have come, not to abolish them, but to fulfill them."... The Catholic theological tradition holds that the moral precepts of the Mosaic law are precepts of the natural moral law, which is engraved, not on tablets of stone, but on tablets of flesh, i.e., in the human heart."