Welsh syntax

The syntax of the Welsh language shows a structure different in many respects from that of English, but still clearly of an Indo-European heritage. Like other Insular Celtic languages, Welsh syntax is heavily right-branching (including a VSO word order) and the verb for "be" (in Welsh, "bod") is crucial to constructing many different types of clauses. Any verb may be inflected for three tenses (preterite, future, and unreality), and a range of additional tenses are constructed with auxiliary verbs and particles. Welsh lacks true subordinating conjunctions, and instead relies on special verb forms and preverbal particles to create subordinate clauses.

Word order

The usual Welsh word order is Verb–Subject–Object. In addition to a verb and a subject, which are obligatory in a canonical clause, Welsh typically organizes additional information like so:

* Preverbal particle
* Verb
* Subject
* Direct object
* Adverbials (adverb, prepositional phrase, etc.)

:

Nominal syntax

Determiners precede the noun they modify, while adjectives generally follow it. A modifier that precedes its head noun often causes a mutation, and adjectives following a feminine noun are lenited. Thus:
*"llywodraeth" ("a government")
*"y lywodraeth" ("the government"; "llywodraeth" is lenited because it is feminine)
*"hen lywodraeth" ("an old government"; "llywodraeth" is lenited because "hen" "old" precedes it)
*"llywodraeth fywiol" ("a living government"; "bywiol" is lenited because it follows a feminine noun)

Genitive relationships are expressed by apposition. The genitive in Welsh is formed by putting two noun phrases next to each other, the possessor coming second. So English "The cat's mother", or "mother of the cat", corresponds to Welsh _cy. "mam y gath" – literally, "mother the cat"; "the project manager's phone number" is _cy. "rhif ffôn rheolwr y prosiect" – literally, "number phone manager the project". Only the last noun in a genitive sequence can take the definite article.

Verbal syntax

yntax with "bod"

"Bod" "be" is used for a number of constructions, including equating two noun phrases, using adjectives predicatively, and forming a wide range of grammatical tenses.

Noun and adjective complements

One way to equate noun phrases is to use what King (2003) calls "identification forms" of "bod", with the word order NP₁ – "bod" – NP₂

: _cy. Diffoddwr dân ydy Gwyn.: "Gwyn is a fireman."

Alternatively, a verb-initial word order may be used, with the "affirmative forms" of "bod" and a particle "yn" which triggers the soft mutation: "bod" – NP₁ – "yn"+SM – NP₂. This construction has both interrogative and negative variations which utilze different verbforms and, in the case of the negative, the addition of "ddim" "not".

: _cy. Mae Gwyn yn ddiffoddwr dân.: "Gwyn is a fireman."

: _cy. Ydy Gwyn yn ddiffoddwr dân?: "Is Gwyn a fireman?"

: _cy. Dydy Gwyn ddim yn ddiffoddwr dân.: "Gwyn isn't a fireman.

The predicative adjective construction uses this same verb-initial construction: "bod" – NP – "yn"+SM – adjective.

: _cy. Mae Gwyn yn ddiflas.: "Gwyn is miserable."

: _cy. Ydy Gwyn yn ddiflas?: "Is Gwyn miserable?"

: _cy. Dydy Gwyn ddim yn ddiflas.: "Gwyn isn't miserable."

Verb complements

In addition to the inflected preterite, future, and conditional tense forms, "Bod" + subject + "yn" + verbnoun (with no mutation) is used to express a range of other times:

* Present::: _cy. Mae bws yn dod.:: "A bus is coming."
* Imperfect::: _cy. Roedd bws yn dod.:: "A bus was coming."
* Future::: _cy. Bydd bws yn dod.:: "A bus will be coming."
* Conditional::: _cy. Byddai bws yn dod.:: "A bus would be coming."

While the present and imperfect have special interrogative and negative forms, the future and conditional forms:
* form questions by leniting the verb, and
* form negative statements by the adding "ddim" after the subject, and optionally leniting the verb.

All of these "bod" constructions may be given perfect meaning by replacing "yn" with "wedi", while using "newydd" or "jyst" instead means "just".

yntax without "bod"

Welsh has inflected preterite, future, and conditional tenses. These do not take any particle such as "yn", but instead soft mutation occurs after the subject: "Welon ni gi?" "We saw a dog" (where "gi" is the lenited form of "ci" "dog"). In negative sentences the soft mutation is blocked by "ddim" "not": "Welon ni ddim ci" "We didn't see a dog".

Questions are formed the same way as with the future and conditional "bod" forms above, as are negative statements "except" when there is a "specific" noun phrase functioning as the direct object. A specific noun phrase is a pronoun ("fi", "nhw", etc), a definite noun ("yr ardal", "y ffilm", etc.), or a noun preceded by a definite adjective ("fy nhad", "ei chalon hi", etc). In these cases, "ddim" is replaced by "mo" (a contraction of "ddim o"). Thus:

* "Ffeindies i ddim potelau" "I didn't find any bottles" but "Ffeindies i mo'r potelau" "I didn't find the bottles"
* "Gwelodd hi ddim y rheolwr" "She didn't see the manager" but "Gwelodd hi mohono fo" "She didn't see him" ("mo", like "o", must inflect for pronomial objects)

The preterite, future, and conditional can also be formed with the appropriate inflected tense of _cy. "gwneud" "to do" with a verbal noun (again with soft mutation after the subject). The preterite may also be formed with _cy. "ddaru" "to happen", which does not alter its form.

ubordination

References

*King, G. (2003). "Modern Welsh". Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28270-5