Pukeko (Porphyrio melanotus)

Taxobox
name = Pukeko

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status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1
regnum = Animalia
phylum = Chordata
classis = Aves
ordo = Gruiformes
familia = Rallidae
genus = " Porphyrio "
species = " Porphyrio porphyrio "
subspecies = "P. p. melanotus"
trinomial = "Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus"
trinomial_authority = (Temminck, 1820)

The New Zealand Pukeko (Scientific name:"Porphyrio porphyrio melanotus", Temminck, 1820). The translation from the Greek means 'purple purple black', though they are more blue than purple. Probably because of their boldness and beautiful colouring, they have struck a chord with the Kiwi (New Zealander) psyche. Their images are found on all manner of art and craft works. Ask any visitor to New Zealand what bird they remember most, and they will more than likely answer, "The Pukeko!" [http://www.pukeko.ws/bird.html retrieved 2008]

Distribution

It is a native of New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania. The name 'Pukeko' is of Maori origin. It is a subspecies of the Purple Swamphen ("Porphyrio porphyrio"). In Australia "P.p. melanotus" are commonly known as 'Swamphens' or 'Purple Swamp Hens'. It is also found in Indonesia, Mollucas (Indonesia), the Aru Islands and the Kai Islands (both located in Mollucas, Indonesia), Papua New Guinea (P.N.G.), Milne Bay Islands south east of P.N.G., Louisiade Archipelago south east of P.N.G. , Taluga Island in P.N.G., Lord Howe Island between N.Z and Australia, Norfolk Island also between N.Z and Australia, New Zealand Islands, Chatham Islands located 800 km east of South Island, New Zealand, and the Kermadec Islands located about 900 km north-east of North Island, New Zealand.

Establishment in New Zealand

According to the Heather and Robertson Field Guide, the bird seems to have become established in New Zealand about 1000 years ago. According to Millener (1981) it invaded from Australia less than 1,000 years ago. It is also assumed to have spread from Australia to New Guinea [http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/finder/display.cfm?id=87 retrieved 2008] . Some assume that it became established before humans in New Zealand but all fossil occurrences are in sites younger than 400 years and there is no evidence that they were on the main Islands of New Zealand before the Maori arrived (Worthy & Holdaway 1996) [New Zealand Journal of Zoology 201 volume 28 Page 23] . It may have been introduced by the ancestors of Maori. East Coast Maori say they were brought to New Zealand on the Harouta canoe which arrived about 24 generations ago [Best, Elsdon, Forest Lore of the Maori.] . The Aotea tribe of the West Coast say the Pukeko was introduced by their ancestors in a boat called the Aotea.

In support of the belief that it is a good flyer, and may have self introduced, there was a dead Pukeko found on L'Esperance Rock, a tiny, isolated rock in the Kermadec group, more than 200 km from the nearest established population (Tennyson & Taylor 1989). This demonstrates the ability of Pukeko to fly great distances over the sea [New Zealand Journal of zoology 201 volume 28 Page 23] . This ability to disperse is not unique to this subspecies, but is common to all continental Rallidae, hence they are found on the more distant islands.

The Takahe, a close relative

The Takahe, a flightless native of New Zealand and found no where else, has its closest relative in the Pukeko. Takahe appears to have arrived in New Zealand a very long time before the Pukeko (millions of years ago) probably also from Australia [http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/NativeBirdsAndBats/LargeForestBirds/3/en retieved 2008] . Takahe evolved to be approximately 3 times heavier than pukeko, (to about 3 kg), in an environment free from humans and ground predators. Introduced predators now threaten the Takahe with extinction.

Evolution

The New Zealand Pukeko is slightly larger than the Australian Swamphen of the same sub species (P.p. melanotus) [http://www.pukekosnest.co.nz/pukeko.htm retrieved 2008] . The Pukeko is beginning to lose its ability to fly according to Britannica however it can still fly [ [http://www.terranature.org/takahe.htm TerraNature | New Zealand Ecology - Takahe ] ] . Even now, when threatened it will often walk away from danger rather than fly. When it does fly, it has a rather clumsy take off and landing. It tends to prefer short distances. If it were not for humans and the introduced predators (eg. stoat, rat) the Pukeko would appear to have little need for wings and would possibly evolve to become heavier and perhaps more like the Takahe over millions of years. The Polynesian rat arrived with Polynesian settlers about 800 - 1000 years ago [http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/master.html?http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/0403/0403_feature.html retrieved 2008] .

Defence and Behaviour

It is a tough bird and seems very capable of fighting off attacks. The predators (mammals) arrived with humans over the past few hundred years. Strangely, Pukeko have thrived in an environment where the introduced predators such as cats, rats and stoats, are present (Brunin and Jamieson, 1995). They have been known to group together and shriek loudly to successfully defend nests during attacks by harrier hawks. They can often be heard in the night protecting their nests. They do not always overcome these predators and sometimes abandon the nest site.Pukeko live in groups of 3-12 indiviuals.

In Māori culture

The colour red was associated with nobility and power by Maori so the Pukeko was held in high esteem because of its red beak and legs [http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/NativeBirdsAndBats/WetlandBirds/10/en retieved 2008] . By coincidence, black (Greek: melanotus) is New Zealand’s national colour.

Māori metaphor

Pūkeko are known for their bold scheming and determination. In times past they raided gardens for kūmara (sweet potato) and taro. A stubborn, annoying person was compared metaphorically to the bird, and was said to have Pūkeko ears (taringa Pākura) [http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/NativeBirdsAndBats/NgaManuBirds/5/en Retrieved 2008] . They are known to steal eggs from each other and this is an indication of their character.

Māori mythology

In New Zealand the Pukeko is mentioned in the Maori myth 'How the Kiwi lost her wings' in which several birds of the forest are asked to come down from the trees to eat the bugs on the ground and save the forest, but all give excuses except the Kiwi who is willing to give up his colours and the ability to fly. The Pukeko's excuse is that it looks too damp down there, and he does not want to get his feet wet. The Pukeko is punished for his reluctance and told he must now live forever in the swamps.

Hunted by Māori

In a written account given over 100 years ago, Maori were described as trapping Pukeko (near lake Taupo). They would choose a suitable place where Pukeko were known to feed, and drive a series of stakes into the ground. These stakes were connected by a fine flax string. Hair-like nooses (made from cabbage tree fibre) were then dangled at the appropriate height, from the flax string, to catch Pukeko as they fed after dusk, in the low light conditions [A history of the birds of New Zealand] . They were used as food.

Hunting today versus conservation

In New Zealand, Pukeko are a protected native gamebird which means they can only be hunted under licence (from Fish and Game) and this is done only during the duck shooting season. Sometimes there is an extended season on the West Coast of the South Island. They are not generally hunted for food and most are left to rot after shooting. Conservationists tend to argue that hunting is unnecessary and the birds do little harm to farmers however many farmers do not agree. Generally they are not thought to be a particularly tasty dish as they are rumoured to be sinewy and tough. Some say, to cook a Pukeko, you add a stone in the pot with the Pukeko, cook for several hours, throw away the Pukeko and eat the stone. Others say the breast is quite good in a casserole.

Breeding

In New Zealand between August (end of winter) and March (start of autumn). "P.p. melanotos" breeds in polyandrous, polygynous and polygynandrous groups [C. D Millar, D. M Lambert, S Anderson, J. L Halverson (1996) Molecular sexing of communally breeding pukeko: An important ecological tool Molecular Ecology 5 (2) , 289–293] . 'Polygynandrous' means that males and females both breed with several mates during a breeding season. P.p. melanotos has an unusual social system, often breeding in polygynandrous groups in which there is a strong dominance hierarchy with an alpha male, beta male etc and an alpha female, beta female etc. In a group a dominant individual can be responsible for reproduction or in another group reproduction is spread evenly between all adults [Testing Reproductive Skew Models in a Communally Breeding Bird, the Pukeko, Porphyrio porphyrio Ian G. JamiesonProceedings: Biological Sciences, Vol. 264, No. 1380 (Mar. 22, 1997), pp. 335-340] . Alpha males do not guard the female duringher fertile period and will tolerate copulations byother males within the group [The Auk 114(2):Pages 291-295, James & Quin - University of Otago, 1997] .

Nesting

Large, untidy, shallow cup shaped or deep cup shaped. Often less than 1 meter from water or over shallow water, typically well hidden in the middle of a clump of New Zealand raupo "(Typha spp.)." Nests are built by the males. When Pukeko live in communal groups, often two or three female birds will share the same nest [http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/P/Pukeko/Pukeko/en retrieved 2008] .

Eggs

Each female lays up to six buff-coloured eggs with blotches of brown or purple at the larger end. They can also be described as reddish-cream with variable red-brown spots and purple blotches all over. The eggs are roughly 50mm x 35mm in size. Hatch asynchronously after 23-27 days [Haselmayer and Jamieson:Predation of Pukeko eggs Page 89]

Incubation

Both sexes incubate the eggs. In New Zealand, most eggs are laid between August and February with breeding reaching a peak in Spring between September and December.

Chicks

Young offspring help in feeding and caring of chicks.

Road side behaviour

Often seen singularly or in groups of 2 or 3 foraging for food beside the motorway or near roadside ditches, and sometimes even collecting grit. In a study of free range birds, the preferred colour of grit was red (followed by yellow and lastly blue) even though the red grit was less common on the road side [Clare Washington (Lincoln University) did a study in Christchurch - found in ASSAB 2000 27th annual conference] . Pukeko sometimes wander on to the road and are killed by passing cars.

External links

* [http://www.nzbirds.com/birds/pukeko.html Pukeko]
* [http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-BulBird-t1-g1-t2-body-d35.html A History of the Birds of New Zealand. Porphyrio Melanonotus — (Swamp-Hen.)]
* [http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/finder/display.cfm?id=87 Shows Australian distribution]

References

Reflist