Sefire

Sefire refers to three stelae containing Aramaic inscriptions discovered near Aleppo that date back to the mid eighth-century BCE.cite web|title=Aramaic|publisher=Anchor Bible Dictionary|pages=173–78|author=by S. A. Kaufman|url=http://209.85.135.104/search?q=cache:0PKViXZ2JkAJ:www.nelc.ucla.edu/Faculty/Schniedewind_files/NWSemitic/Aramaic_ABD.pdf] Two treaties conducted between minor kings from the Kingdom of Arpad inscribed on the stelae are often cited as evidence of the Aramaean tradition of treaty-making.cite web|title="Ancient Aramaic Culture and the Bible"|author=John F. Healy|publisher=University of Durham|date=13 June 1987|accessdate=2007-10-12|url=http://www.urhoy.info/culture.pdf] The Sefire inscriptions are of interest to those studying beliefs and practices in ancient Syria and Palestine and the text is considered notable for constituting "the best extrabiblical source for West Semitic traditions of covenantal blessings and curses."

Overview

The inscriptions record two treaties that "list curses and magical rites which take effect if the treaty is violated."cite book|title=Magic and Divination in Ancient Palestine and Syria|author=Ann Jeffers|year=1996|publisher=BRILL|page=18|isbn=9004105131] One is a treaty between two minor kings, Barga'yah and Matti'el, who hailed from the southwestern periphery of the Assyrian empire.cite journal|title="Molten Wax, Spilt Wine and Mutilated Animals: Sympathetic Magic in near Eastern and Early Greek Oath Ceremonies"|author=Christopher A. Faraone|journal="The Journal of Hellenic Studies"|volume=Vol. 113|year=1993|pages=60–80|accessdate=2007-10-12|url=http://www.wac.ucla.edu/pdf/greekoathceremonies.pdf|doi=10.2307/632398] In the text, Matti'el swears to accept direconsequences for himself and his cities should he should violate the stipulations of the treaty:

"As this wax is consumed by fire, thus Ma [tti'el] shall be consumed b [y fi] re." "As this bow and these arrows are broken, thus Inurta and Hadad (= names of local deities) shall break [the bow of Matti'el] and the bows of his nobles." "As a man of wax is blinded, thus Matti'el shall be blinded." " [As] this calf is cut up, thus Matti'el and his nobles shall be cut up."

This loyalty oath from the Sefire incriptions is similar to other loyalty oaths imposed by Assyrian kings on other less powerful monarchs in the Levant throughout the eighth and seventh centuries BCE.

The inscriptions also record the names of El and Elyon, providing prima facie evidence for a distinction between the two deities first worshipped by the Jebusites in Jerusalem, and then elsewhere throughout the ancient Levant.cite book|title=Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan|author=John Day|publisher=Continuum International|year=2000|page=20|isbn=0826468306]

Thought to be reflective of Assyrian or neo-Assyrian culture and similar to other documents dating from the first millennium BCE, scholars such as Joseph Fitzmyer have perceived Canaanite influences in the text, while Dennis McCarthy has noted similarities to second millennium BCE treaties imposed by Hittite kings on Syrian vassals.cite journal|title="The Sefire Treaty Stipulations and the Mesopotamian Treaty Tradition"|journal=The World of the Aramaeans|author=William Morrow|editor=Paul-Eugène Dion et al.|year=2001|publisher=Continuum International|isbn=1841271799|pages=83–84]

References