Sentient beings (Buddhism)

Sentient being is a technical term within English Buddhist discourse and worldview. Different Buddhist schools, yana, key meditators and scholars, as well as texts, commentaries, teaching tools, and analogies provide a widely varied view of the concept.

Since Buddhist discourse generally holds to the upaya notion of anatman, or "non-self", a being that is sentient or constituted by sentience requires qualification. This qualification may be found in the doctrine of the Mindstream. Hopkins (1983, 1996: p.381) in his recognized magnum opus holds that:

In the "Tathāgata Essence Sutra", the "Nirvana Sutra", and so forth, Buddha speaks of a permanent, fully developed Buddha possessing the ten powers and existing in the continuum of each sentient being. The Prāsangikas say that this teaching is an example of giving to the 'cause' the name of the effect, for the emptiness of the mind of each sentient being is what allows for change of that person's mind, and this emptiness is being called a fully developed Buddha. The emptiness of the mind, its lack of existence by way of its own being or its dependence on causes and conditions, is that most marvelous quality of the mind allowing it to be transformed into the wisdom of a Buddha. This emptiness is not a fully developed Buddha but is like a 'cause' of Buddhahood in that if the mind did not lack inherent existence, it would be utterly static, unable to be affected by practice of the paths. [Hopkins, Jeffrey (author) and Napper, Elizabeth (editor) (1983, 1996). "Meditation on Emptiness". Somerville, Massachusetts, USA: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-110-6. p.381]

General definition

In general Buddhist discourse, 'sentient being' has a technical denotation which contrasts with the conception of buddhahood. Sentient beings are not awakened in the sense of the bodhi of buddhahood and it is to these beings that the Mahayana Bodhisattva vow of compassion is pledged. Is there a relationship between sentient beings and the 'three times' and the 'three worlds'? A sentient being is capable of experiencing, and/or in the state of, dukkha. Sentient beings refers to beings confined to and within cyclic existence in samsara: is a tulku therefore is some respects a sentient being? A buddha secedes sentience in lieu of a Buddhist conception of omniscience. This begs the question that is a tortured nirmanakaya that breaks under torture a sentient being rather than in the state of the grace of buddhahood. What is the relationship between sentient beings and the skillful doctrine of the Trikaya?

Getz (2004: p.760) provides a generalist Western Buddhist encyclopedic definition:

"Sentient beings" is a term used to designate the totality of living, conscious beings that constitute the object and audience of Buddhist teaching. Translating various Sanskrit terms ("jantu, bahu jana, jagat, sattva"), "sentient beings" conventionally refers to the mass of living things subject to illusion, suffering, and rebirth (Saṃsāra). Less frequently, "sentient beings" as a class broadly encompasses all beings possessing consciousness, including Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. [Getz, Daniel A. (2004). "Sentient beings"; cited in Buswell, Robert E. (2004). "Encyclopedia of Buddhism". Volume 2. New York, USA: Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 0-02-865720-9 (Volume 2): pp.760 ]

First Turning: Pali literature

Getz (2004: p.760) provides a cursory textual overview of the point of origin of the classification of sentient beings:

The Pāli "nikāyas" and the Sarvāstivāda Abhidarma differentiate the mass of deluded beings subject to saṃsāra into a hierarchy of five paths or destinations of rebirth based upon karma (action): divinities (deva), humans ("manuṣya"), animals ("tiryak"), spirits of the dead (preta), and denizens of hell ("naraka"). An alternative list of six categories, which was attributed to the Vātsiputrīyas and gained popularity in East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, places a class of demonic beings (asura) between humans and gods. [Getz, Daniel A. (2004). "Sentient beings"; cited in Buswell, Robert E. (2004). "Encyclopedia of Buddhism". Volume 2. New York, USA: Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 0-02-865720-9 (Volume 2): pp.760 ]

Getz (2004: p.760) states further:

All of these beings reside in the three realms of existence ("tridhātu") that comprise the entirety of the Buddhist universe. The realm of desire ("kāmadhātu") is residence for beings from all the categories, while the realm of form ("rūpadhātu") and the realm of formlessness ("ārūypadhātu") are reserved for gods of higher achievement. Among these paths of rebirth, the denizens of hell, spirits of the dead, and animals are regarded as unhappy destinies, while rebirth as human and gods (as well as asura in the list of six) are considered desirable, most importantly because it is only through the human and deva destinies that enlightenment can be obtained. [Getz, Daniel A. (2004). "Sentient beings"; cited in Buswell, Robert E. (2004). "Encyclopedia of Buddhism". Volume 2. New York, USA: Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 0-02-865720-9 (Volume 2): pp.760 ]

econd Turning: Fecund Openness

*compassion
*transfer of merit, Parinamana, Merit (Buddhism)
*upaya
**all of which are central to the cultivation of the bodhisattva path

Third Turning: Buddha-nature

The Mahāyāna tradition furthermore came to maintain that all sentient beings possessed the buddha-nature, which meant that all inherently had the potential to become enlightened. In later developments in East Asian Buddhism the possession of this nature was extended to insentient existents as well. [Getz, Daniel A. (2004). "Sentient beings"; cited in Buswell, Robert E. (2004). "Encyclopedia of Buddhism". Volume 2. New York, USA: Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 0-02-865720-9 (Volume 2): pp.760 ]

Classification

Furthermore, in the Buddhist convention of the Bhavachakra, sentient beings partake of six classes of being: gods, antigods, humans, animals, tormented spirits and denizens of hell. An important though subtle teaching is inherent in the Bhavachakra in that sometimes the six classes are depicted as five in that the deva and demigod realms interpenetrate.

Science and 'Buddhism as scientific' inquiry are as yet, through generally held means and methodology, unable to determine whether or not what is held to be inanimate (in the etymological sense of animated by lifeairs) such as plants, rocks or clouds are sentient or possessed of consciousness. Is consciousness not only what perceives but also but a perception and an attribute of sensate perception: refer Turing test. Is sentient being more valuable as a thought experiment than as a class of entities?

Jigme Lingpa relates how he captures a malevolent spirit in a crystal or gem in his autobiographical writings.

Dōgen, entwining 'Buddha-nature' and 'sentient beings', is rendered into English by "The Eastern Buddhist" as holding that:

...all mind is sentient being: sentient beings are all being Buddha nature. Grass and trees, states and lands, are mind. Because they are mind, they are sentient beings. Because they are sentient beings, they are being Buddha nature. Heavenly bodies are mind. Because they are mind, they are sentient beings. Because they are sentient beings, they are being Buddha nature. [Keiji, Nishitani (ed.)(1976). "The Eastern Buddhist". 9.2: p.72. Kyoto: Eastern Buddhist Society; cited in Dumoulin, Henrich (author); Heisig, James (translator); and Knitter, Paul (translator)(2005). "Zen Buddhism: A History ~ Volume 2: Japan." With an Introduction by Victor Sogen Hori. Bloomington, Indiana, USA: World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN-10: 0-941532-90-2 (v.2: pbk.: alk. paper) ]

Muller (1995: unpaginated) in discussing Korean Buddhism holds that:

...in Buddhism, "t'i" [體] is regarded as the fundamentally enlightened Buddha-mind that is present in all beings, whereas "yung" [用] is the manifestation of that mind in actual practice--whether it be a full manifestation (enlightened Buddha) or limited manifestation (ignorant sentient being). [Muller, Charles A. (1995). "The Key Operative Concepts in Korean Buddhist Syncretic Philosophy: Interpenetration (通達) and Essence-Function (體用) in Wŏnhyo, Chinul and Kihwa" cited in "Bulletin of Toyo Gakuen University" No. 3, March 1995, pp 33-48.Source: [http://www.acmuller.net/budkor/wonhyo-chinul-kihwa.htm] (accessed: September 18, 2008)]

Muller (1995: unpaginated) in discussing Wonhyo (元曉), mentions the "Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lu"'s equation of Dharma with 'enlightened mind', holds that:

While seeing the world as a singular reality, Wŏnhyo did not perceive this reality to be a haphazard mass of mind and matter, but understood the world (in a manner not unlike that seen in classical Confucianism and Taoism) to be governed by a mysterious principle. This principle was something to be known, "penetrated," realized. The "AMF" [the Ta-ch'eng ch'i-hsin lun (大乘起信論 Treatise on Awakening Mahāyāna Faith)] unequivocally stated that the principle ("dharma"," which we can understand as "ch'e") is itself the enlightened human mind. In Wŏnhyo's Buddhist understanding, this "dharma" is equivalent to emptiness, but in a positive sense, equivalent to enlightenment. Enlightenment (覺) for Wŏnhyo is synonymous with Mahāyāna (大乘), which in turn is not different from the "mind of sentient beings (衆生心)." Thus, in an understanding that works through the "ch'e-yong" paradigm, the mind of the sentient being, which has the basic nature of enlightenment, is equivalent to Mahāyāna, which penetrates and functions universally throughout the universe. Wŏnhyo says: "The words 'there is a dharma,' which begin the first section of this part of the treatise, refer to the principle of One Mind. If people are able to understand this principle, they are bound to arouse the broad and great root of faith." [ Muller, Charles A. (1995). "The Key Operative Concepts in Korean Buddhist Syncretic Philosophy: Interpenetration (通達) and Essence-Function (體用) in Wŏnhyo, Chinul and Kihwa" cited in "Bulletin of Toyo Gakuen University" No. 3, March 1995, pp 33-48.Source: [http://www.acmuller.net/budkor/wonhyo-chinul-kihwa.htm] (accessed: September 18, 2008)]

Dōgen in the "Shōbōgenzō" 1: 'Genjo koan' is rendered in English:

To practise and confirm all things by conveying one's self to them is illusion: for all things to advance forward and practise and confirm the self is enlightenment. Those who greatly enlighten illusion are Buddhas; those who are greatly deluded about enlightenment are sentient beings. Again, there are men who gain enlightenment beyond enlightenment, and there are men [sic] who further give rise to illusion within their illusion. When Buddhas are genuinely Buddhas, there is no need for them to be conscious that they are Buddhas. Yet they are realized Buddhas, and they continue to realize Buddha. [Kimura, Kiyotaka (1991). "The Self in Medieval Japanese Buddhism: Focusing on Dogen"; cited in "Philosophy East and West"; Volume 41, Number 3, July 1991. University of Hawaii Press: pp.327-340. Source: [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/kiyota1.htm] (accessed: September 18, 2008)]

Emanation theory

Gyatso (2003: pp.132-133) beautifully illustrates the majesty of emanation theory and its salient interpenetration with sentient beings:

Like the reflections of the moon that effortlessly appear in any body of still water, a Buddha's emanations spontaneously appear wherever living beings' minds are capable of perceiving them. Buddhas can emanate in any form whatsoever to help living beings. Sometimes they manifest as Buddhists and sometimes as non-Buddhists. They can manifest as women or men, monarchs or tramps, law-abiding citizens or criminals. They can even manifest as animals, as wind or rain, or as mountains or islands. Unless we are a Buddha ourself, we cannot possibly say who or what is an emanation of a Buddha. [Gyatso, Kelsang (2003). "Introduction to Buddhism". Tharpa Publications; 2nd Edition. ISBN-13: 978-0948006715. Source: [http://books.google.com/books?id=cPNNwAO6UlsC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132&dq=what+does+emanation+mean+in+buddhism&source=web&ots=eT9GFMk19q&sig=ngeskxLGHrPoBKUTOZiw8tYl_Js&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA133,M1] (accessed: September 20, 2008): pp.132-133 ]

The great debate

A great and protracted debate is whether there are degrees of sentience or a graded sentience in different sentient beings and whether what are generally understood as inanimate objects or that which is without the breath of life or respiration is a sentient being. In terms of generation stage and completion stage why is the yidam omniscient if in general thoughtform or tulpa practice the emergent 'entity' is sentient.

The conception of a non-graded sentience may be founded in Shakyamuni Buddha's penchant for ahimsa and vegetarianism in response to the blood-letting rites of his time. In the Higher Yoga Tantras it is the responsibility of adepts to ritually and mindfully partake of meat in rites such as the Ganachakra and the Panchamakara. Some Buddhists share membership with animists, pantheists, panentheists and panpsychists of a fashion, whilst others do not. As Buddhism has developed through time and evolved in different cultural contexts this is not discrete and neat. Often a buddhists conception of what is a sentient being is culturally determined and bandied around in a cavalier fashion rather than ascertained through inquiry by meditation, contemplation, oracular inquiry and/or scholarship: all of which are orthodox methods for Buddhism in general.

The "traditional Tibetan view" in the following quotation of Ray (2000: p.26-27) sourced from the opening of his work the first part of which is entitled "The Sacred Environment" and further divided into the chapter "The Cosmos and Its Inhabitants", is a coalescence of Bon, Vajrayana, Himalayan shamanism, Buddhism, folklore, animism, theurgy, Traditional Tibetan medicine and common wisdom all of which qualify what is presented as Tibetan Buddhism to the West:

In the traditional Tibetan view...the animate and inanimate phenomena of this world are charged with being, life, and spiritual vitality. These are conceived in terms of various spirits, ancestors, demigods, demons, and so on. One of the ways Tibetans recognize a spirit is through the energy that collects in a perceptual moment. A crescendo of energetic "heat" given off by something indicates a spirit. It is something like when we might say that a rock, a tree, or a cloud formation is "striking" or "dramatic" or "compelling." A rock outcropping that has a strange and arresting shape, that perhaps seems strong and menacing, will indicate the existence of some kind of nonhuman presence. Likewise, a hollow in a grove of trees where a spring flows and the flora are unusually lush and abundant, that has a particularly inviting and nurturing atmosphere, will likewise present itself as the home of a spirit. The unusual behavior of a natural phenomenon or an animal will suggest the same as will the rain that ends a drought or the sudden irruption of an illness. [Ray, Reginand A. (2000). "Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism; The World of Tibetan Buddhism, Volume One". Boston, Massachusetta, USA: Shambhala Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-57062-910-2. p.26-27]

ee also

* Early Buddhist schools
* Schools of Buddhism
* Mindstream

Notes

Further reading

* Priestley, Leonard (1999). "Pudgalavāda Buddhism: The Reality of the Indeterminate Self". Toronto: Centre for South Asian Studies, University of Toronto.