History of Corsica

That the history of Corsica has been influenced by its strategic position at the heart of the western Mediterranean and its maritime routes, only convert|12|km|0 from Sardinia, convert|50|km|sigfig=1 from the Isle of Elba, convert|80|km from the coast of Tuscany and convert|200|km from the French port of Nice, was first proposed by the 19th-century German theorist, Friedrich Ratzel. To him is often attributed the description "Gebirge im Meer", "mountain in the sea." Regardless of whether he used that particular phrase [The reference is never given. Guy de Maupassant is alternatively proposed; however, the phrase has become in effect proverbial.] the idea is expressed in his magnum opus, "Anthropogeographie", [cite book|title=Anthropogeographie: Erster Teil|first=Friedrich|last=Ratzel|pages=page 62|date=1899|publisher=J. Engelhorn|location=Stuttgart de icon.] which calls Corsica:"Ein abgeschlossenes und eigenartiges Land, das Insel und Gebirg zugleich ....":"An isolated and singular land, both island and mountain ...."and especially in his monograph on Corsica, "La Corse", also published in 1899. [cite journal|first=Friedrich|last=Ratzel|title=La Corse, étude anthropogéographique|journal=Annales de Géographie|volume=8|issue=40|date=1899|pages=304-329|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geo_0003-4010_1899_num_8_40_6121?_Prescripts_Search_isPortletOuvrage=false fr icon.]

The "Anthropogeographie" presents an overall view of Ratzel's method of analysis but the 25-page monograph is perhaps the most relevant, applying the method in detail to Corsica. The "sea" part of the proverb refers to the easy accessibility by great powers to Corsica across the narrow waters from neighboring lands. Once they arrive the "mountain" provides a wall of defense against which invaders can make no easy headway. A central spine running north-south right along its length, which makes travel from (and communication between) one side to the other difficult, isolates Corsicans even from themselves. This spine and strategic position go some way to explaining the island's unique history.

At convert|8778|km2, it is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean, after Sicily, Sardinia and Cyprus. As none of those islands are independent, Corsica is not large enough to achieve independence either. Ratzel portrays a society never able either to be conquered or to rule itself but in the perpetual struggle for freedom and sovereignty producing "zahlreichen Helden" ("numberless champions"). On this last point Ratzel admits to an unbridled admiration for his friend and associate Ferdinand Gregorovius, an advocate of Corsican culture, and joins him in portraying Pasquale Paoli and Napoleon Bonaparte, two of the "Helden", as larger than life.

In 1762, Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote in his opus, The Social Contract, that Corsica would one day astonish Europe. [Rousseau, J-J., "The Social Contract", Chapter 10: "There is still in Europe one country capable of being given laws — Corsica. The valour and persistency with which that brave people has regained and defended its liberty well deserves that some wise man should teach it how to preserve what it has won. I have a feeling that some day that little island will astonish Europe."] This was written some seven years before Napoleon was born.

Prehistory

The prehistory of Corsica covers the long period from the Upper Paleolithic to the first historical event, the founding of Aleria by the ancient Greeks in 566 BC.

Classical antiquity

The name

The ancient Greeks, notably Herodotus, called the island Kurnos; the name Corsica is Latin and was in use in the Roman Republic. Of course it is possible by syncopating the -no- and adding an adjectival ending -ica to derive Corsica from Kurnos, but there is no evidence at all to indicate that the etymology is the right one. Similarly interesting partial homophonies in various languages can be found to words that ought to have an appropriate meaning - forest, headland, mountain range, what have you [cite web|title=le nom de la Corse|url=http://corsicanostra.free.fr/lenomdelacorse.htm|publisher=corsicanostra|format=html|accessdate=2008-05-27 fr icon] - but lack any historical or cultural indicators that this speculation is to be preferred.

Why Herodotus used Kyrnos and not some other name remains a mystery and the phrases of the authors give no clue. The Roman historians, however, believed Corsa or Corsica (rightly or wrongly they interpreted -ica as an adjectival formative ending) was the native name of the island but they could not give an explanation of its meaning. They did think that the natives were originally Ligurian. [cite book|pages=pages 689-692|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography|first=William|last=Smith|date=1872|location=London|publisher=J. Murray Downloadable Google Books.]

Greek and Etruscan footholds

The Ionian Greeks had a brief foothold in Corsica with the foundation of Aleria in 566 BC. They were expelled by an alliance of the Etruscans and the Carthaginians. For a few centuries the Etruscans dominated the island but their alliance with the Carthaginians led them into opposition to the Roman Republic during the Punic Wars.

Roman era

The island was under Etruscan and Carthaginian influence until 237 BC, when it was taken over by the Roman Republic. The Etruscans were confined to a few coastal settlements, such as Aleria and the Carthaginians were strong on neighboring Sardinia. The Romans, however, had a profound influence, colonizing the entire coast, permeating inland and changing the unknown indigenous language to Latin. Corsica remained under Roman rule until its conquest by the Vandals in AD 430. It was recovered by the eastern, or Byzantine Empire in 522, adding a late ancient Greek influence.

Middle Ages

After the fall of Rome Corsica became an easy target for predation by migrant peoples and corsairs from every quarter of the Mediterranean, who plundered and ravaged at will until the coastal settlements fell into decline and the population occupied the slopes of the mountains. Rampant malaria in the coastal marshes reinforced this decision. With the further collapse of Byzantine control, the island was subject to various incursions, including those of Lombards and Arabs. They never penetrated much beyond the coast and their stay in Corsica was relatively short-lived, just long enough to prejudice the Corsicans against foreign adventurers on Corsican soil.

The harsh quality of life was mitigated only by the Christian church at Rome, which began to convert Corsicans in the 6th century AD, divided the island into parishes and took responsibility for the well-being of the population. It was they who asked for the protection and assistance of the first Italian republics.

Eventually the major crises of Italy passed and the peninsula achieved some stability under the Holy Roman Empire and the influence of the papacy. The various Italian republics that arose began to assume responsibility for the security and prosperity of Corsica, starting with Tuscany, the closest. Also, possession of the island offered certain strategic and trade advantages. These republics repossessed the coast, building fortifications over or near the abandoned Roman ones.

Moorish era

Corsica was engaged in a long confrontation with the Moors, 850 to 1034.

Renaissance

Pisa retained control of the island during most of the Middle Ages but at the start of the Renaissance it fell to Genoa in 1282, following the Battle of Meloria against Pisa.

Corsica successively was part of the Republic of Genoa for five centuries. Despite take-overs by Aragon between 1296-1434 and France between 1553-1559, Corsica would remain under Genoese control until the Corsican Republic of 1755 and under partial control until its purchase by France in 1764.

Bank of Saint George

However, the dissension and political conflict at home did not always permit Doges of Genoa to govern Corsica well or at all. During such periods the island was subject to destructive conflict between coalitions of signorial families. The Bank of Saint George became involved as a major creditor of the Republic of Genoa. As security for their public loans they had obtained a franchise to collect public money; i.e., taxes.

In 1453 the people of Corsica held a general assembly, or Diet, at Lago Benedetto at which they voted to request the protection of the Bank of Saint George as a credible third-party. In return the bank would get the right to exercise their franchise in Corsica. This third-party solution became immediately popular. The government of Genoa placed Corsica in the bank's hands and the major contenders on Corsica agreed to a peace, some accepting cash payments for their cooperation. [cite book|pages=page 31|title=Wanderings in Corsica; its history and its heroes|first=Ferdinand Adolf|last=Gregorovius|authorlink=Ferdinand Gregorovius|coauthors=A. Muir (Translator)|date=1855|publisher=Oxford University Press]

Throughout the next century the bank undertook enterprises in the major coastal cities, sending in troops to secure the strong points, building or rebuilding the citadels, recruiting several hundred colonists per city, mainly Genoese, and constructing quarters for them within a city wall. Most of these "old cities" survive and are populated today, having served as the nucleus of modern Corsican coastal cities.

The natives were at first kept at bay. Typically more or less immediately but certainly by a few generations they were allowed to conurbate with the Genoese, especially as the latter were decimated by malaria and required the assistance of the natives. Some conflict continued but within a few decades peace and order were restored to the island. Genoese watchtowers populated the entire coastline (and are there yet) where the forces of Genoese signori ruling from coastal castles kept a watchful eye for raiders, pirates, bandits and smugglers.

ampiero Corso

Having begun its dominion in Corsica by building walled cities from which the Corsicans were to be excluded, the Bank of Saint George in the exercise of its taxation franchise finally became as unpopular in some quarters as the Republic of Genoa. It too generated a population of Corsican exiles, one of which, Sampiero Corso, emigrated to France and became ultimately a high-ranking officer in the French army. He was thus on hand in Italy during the Italian War of 1551-1559 when the question came up in a conference of the general staff of what to do with Corsica, which was between France and Italy. At the insistence of Corso and other well-placed exiles the Marshal de Termes gave orders, without the knowledge or assent of his commander, Henri II of France, to take Corsica. [cite book|pages=pages 926-933|title=The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II|first=Fernand|last=Braudel|coauthors=Sian Reynolds (Translator)|date=1996|publisher=University of California Press|id=ISBN 0520203305]

In August 1553 the Turkish fleet under Dragut, an ally of the French, set sail transporting French troops to Cap Corse. Bastia fell on the 24th, Saint-Florent on the 26th, Corte shortly after and Bonifacio in September. Before they could take Calvi the Turks went home in October for unknown reasons. Sampiero Corso proceeded to raise civil war in central Corsica, pitting signor against signor, wasting the villages of his opponents.

That November Henri II opened negotiations with Genoa but too late. While parlaying the Genoese sent their best commander, Admiral Andrea Doria, with 15,000 men to Cap Corse, recapturing Saint-Florent in February, 1554. By 1555 the French had been cleared from most of the coastal cities and Doria left. A Turkish fleet sent to help was decimated by the plague and went home towing empty ships, assisted by Genoese gold. Sampiero fought on in the hinterland.

Peace was finally brokered by Elizabeth I of England. By the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 the French returned Corsica to Genoa. Left without support Corso went again into exile. Peace was restored, but not before the Genoese had dealt severely with the traitorous Signori.

Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment overthrew signorial and colonial rule and brought some measure of self-rule to the island. Corsica is distinguished by having staged the first enlightenment revolution, being upstaged only by the English Revolution of the preceding century. It was the first of a trio: Corsican, American, French, and as such had some influence on the American. Corsica never did obtain total sovereignty but it shared in the French Revolution, became part of France, and acquired the local autonomy and civil rights established by that revolution.

Genoese rule in the 18th century was less than satisfactory to Corsicans, who considered it corrupt and ineffective. The Genoese on their part used their citadels and watch towers in an attempt to control a population that without its assent could not be controlled. The Corsicans had a bastion of their own, the mountains, but steadily the number of exiles abroad grew and those began to look for ways and means to free Corsica from all foreign powers. This was a new dream. At no point in the history of Corsica had it ever been an independent nation, nor did it ever achieve that goal. In the 18th century, however, Corsicans were able to establish a partial republic in which the Genoese were penned up in the citadels but ruled nowhere else. The republic began with a search by the exiles for a savior, a man of great ability who could step in and lead them to victory and self-rule.

Théodore de Neuhoff

The adventurer Theodor von Neuhoff was briefly King Theodore of Corsica in the 18th century.

Republic of Corsica

A capable advocate of Corsican independence at last stepped forward from the ranks of Corsicans in exile in Italy, Pasquale Paoli, a general and patriot who struggled against Genoa and then France, and became "Il Babbu di a Patria" (Father of the Nation). In 1755 he proclaimed the Corsican Republic. His Corsican Constitution would later be used as a model for the American Constitution (Saul 1992, 55–61). Paoli founded the first University of Corsica (with instruction in Italian). He chose the Moor's head ("Testa Mora"), previously used by Theodore of Corsica, as Corsica's emblem in 1760.

ale and annexation to France

Seeing that attempts to dislodge Paoli were futile, in 1764 by secret treaty Genoa sold Corsica to the Duc de Choiseul, then minister of the French Navy, who bought on behalf of the crown. On the quiet French troops gradually replaced Genoese in the citadels. In 1768, after preparations had been made, an open treaty with Genoa ceded Corsica to France in perpetuity with no possibility of retraction and the Duc appointed a Corsican supporter, Buttafuoco, as administrator. The island rose in revolt. Paoli fought a guerrilla war against fresh French troops under a commander, Comte de Marbeuf, but was defeated in the Battle of Ponte Novu and had to go into exile in Vienna then London. In 1770 Marbeuf publicly announced the annexation of Corsica and appointed a governor.

Anglo-Corsican Kingdom

After the French revolution, Corsican leader Pasquale Paoli, who had been exiled under the monarchy, became something of an idol of liberty and democracy. In 1789 he was invited to Paris by the National Constituent Assembly and was celebrated as a hero in front of the assembly. He was afterwards sent back to Corsica having been given the rank of lieutenant-general.

Modern era

Modern Times are generally regarded as the period from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century and continuing up to today.

Nineteenth century

From 1854 to 1857 the Société du Télégraphe Électrique or "The Mediterranean Electric Telegraph", a company started by John Watkins Brett, connected La Spezia Italy with Corsica by submarine cable, being the first to do so. The line ran south along the east coast, partly on land, partly on sea, from Cap Corse to Ajaccio, where a second cable crossed the Strait of Bonifacio. Brett's intended links across Sardinia and through the deeps to Bona, Algeria, failed because of decimation of the crews by malaria and the technical difficuties of laying cable in deep waters. By 1870 Paris could communicate with Algeria by telegraph through Corsica. [cite cite web|last=Glover|first=Bill|title=History of the Atlantic Cable & Undersea Communicationsfrom the first submarine cable of 1850 to the worldwide fiber optic network|publisher=FTL Design|date=2008|url=http://www.atlantic-cable.com/CableCos/France/ptt.htm|format=html|accessdate=2008-07-20]

First World War and after

In World War I Corsica responded to the call to arms more intensely than any other allied region. Out of a population estimated by a diplomat of the times to have been about 300,000 some 50,000 Corsican men were under arms: a ratio better than one of every six Corsican citizens. [cite book|title=The War Diary of a Diplomat|first=Lee|last=Meriwether|date=1919|publisher=Dodd, Mead and Company|pages=page 56|]

The civilian population was correspondingly pro-allied. Prisoners of war were sent to Corsica. There they occupied every available space from rooms in monasteries to cells in citadels. Stone sheds were converted for their use. When all else failed wooden barracks were constructed on the mountainsides. The prisoners were put to work in agriculture and forestry. Corsica was also turned into a hospital for the wounded. Most of the allies sent medical units or volunteers. The island was so useful as a base that the sea lanes leading to it were under constant surveillance and attack by U-boats. [Meriwether page 17.]

Corsican poilus (by then not actually hairy, by custom) were completely loyal and fought with great valor. Estimates of losses vary but most are over 50%. As a result the survivors became established in the upper echelons of the French military and police.cite journal|first=Gerda|last=Bikales|title=Corsican Capers - Island Separatists Highlight France's Malaise|date=Winter 2003-2004|vo;ume=14|issue=2|url=http://www.thesocialcontract.com/artman2/publish/tsc1402/article_1195.shtml|accessdate=2008-07-20] However, the loss of manppower contributed to a recession and mass exodus from Corsica in favor of southern France in the post-war period. Corsicans of means became colonizers during this period, the descendents of the former signori starting agricultural enterprises in Viet Nam, Algeria and Puerto Rico. It was on them that the blow of subsequent wars of independence fell most heavily.

econd World War

In November, 1940, after a campaign of rhetoric by Benito Mussolini asserting that Corsica belonged to Italy, the Kingdom of Italy sent about 90,000 troops to occupy the island. [cite book|title=Gr20 - Corsica: The High-level Route|first=Paddy|last=Dillon|pages = page 14|date=2006|publisher=Cicerone Press Limited|id=ISBN 1852844779] During World War II, while Germany occupied northern and western France, Corsica was part of Vichy France (1940-42). In the first half of the 20th century, many Corsicans (such as Petru Giovacchini) had advocated the unification of the island with Italy. The French had no troops with which to defend except the "Mouvement Unis de la Résistance", an official arm of the French government, also called the Résistance and coincidentally the Service Maquis after the 18th-century partisans of Pasquale Paoli. [cite book|title=World War II: A Student Encyclopedia|first=Spencer C.|last=Tucker|coauthors=Priscilla Mary Roberts;Jack Greene|pages=page 808|date=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|id=ISBN 1851098577] Despite the fact that the Service Maquis became active and were parachuted weapons by the OSS the Italian occupation was relatively uneventful.

In July, 1943, the Italian army on Sardinia was joined by the remnants of the Africa Division of the German army, which had taken a beating in North Africa and was now resting and recuperating after having been reconstituted as the 90th Panzergrenadier, about 40,000 men. [cite book|title=Backwater War: The Allied Campaign in Italy, 1943-45|first=Edwin Palmer|last=Hoyt|pages=page 74|date=2006|publisher=Stackpole Books|id=ISBN 0811733823] In September Italy surrendered. The liberation of Corsica began with the landing of elements of the reconstituted French I Corps on Corsica during Operation Vésuve, carried out simultaneously with the landings in Sicily.

The operation mobilized the newly allied former Italian occupiers of Corsica and coordinated the Corsican resistance to prevent if it could the withdrawal of the German army from Sardinia through Corsica. The Germans moved to recapture the initiative. General Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin was sent to rescue the 90th as part of Plan Achse, which aimed at occupying Italy. Losing no time the division crossed to Corsica and fought its way north to Bastia where it disembarked in October and went on to face decimation in Sicily. Due to the ambivalent loyalties of the Italians the French failed to stop them but the Germans did not care to linger in Corsica; hence, the liberation was a success. [cite book|first=Richard|last=Lamb|title=War in Italy: A Brutal Story|date=1996|publisher=Da Capo Press|location=New York|id=ISBN 0306806886|pages=pages 178-181]

After the liberation of Corsica from the forces of the Third Reich in 1943, in 1944 it became a massive allied air base; in particular, groups of the 57th Bomb Wing were stationed along the east coast from Bastia in the north to Solenzara in the south. [cite web
title=57th Bomb Wing Links Page For Groups Stationed on Corsica-1944
url=http://www.warwingsart.com/12thAirForce/57thoncorsica.html
publisher=WarwingsArt
format=html
accessdate=2008-04-28] It supported the Mediterranean Theater of Operations. Corsica was also the base from which Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France in 1944, was launched.

Post-Aleria

In recent decades, Corsica has developed a thriving tourism industry, which has attracted a sizeable number of immigrants to the island in search of employment. Various movements, calling for either greater autonomy or complete independence from France, have been launched, some of whom have at times used violent means, including terrorist acts. A terrorist organization, Armata Corsa, was formed in 1999.

References

Bibliography

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External links

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