Byzantine science

Byzantine science played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to Renaissance Italy, and also in the transmission of medieval Arabic knowledge to Renaissance Italy. Its rich historiographical tradition preserved ancient knowledge upon which splendid art, architecture, literature and technological achievements were built.

Mathematics

Byzantine scientists preserved and continued the legacy of the great Ancient Greek mathematicians and put mathematics in practice. In early Byzantium (5th to 7th century) the architects and mathematicians Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles used complex mathematical formulas to construct the great “Agia Sophia” temple, a magnificent technological breakthrough for its time and for centuries afterwards due to its striking geometry, bold design and height. In late Byzantium (9th to 12th century) mathematicians like Michael Psellos considered mathematics as a way to interpret the world.

Classical and ecclesiastical studies

Byzantine science was essentially classical science. [cite web |url=http://historymedren.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/XJ/Ya&sdn=historymedren&cdn=education&tm=7&f=00&tt=14&bt=0&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.med.virginia.edu/hs-library/historical/antiqua/texte.htm |title= Byzantine Medicine - Vienna Dioscurides|accessdate=2007-05-27 |format= |work=Antiqua Medicina|publisher=University of Virginia ] Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient-pagan philosophy, and metaphysics. Despite some opposition to pagan learning, many of the most distinguished classical scholars held high office in the Church. The most noteworthy oppositions include the murder of the pagan philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria (415), the closing of the Platonic Academy in 529, the obscurantism of Cosmas Indicopleustes, the condemnation of Ioannis Italos (1082) and of Georgios Plethon because of their devotion to ancient philosophy. The writings of antiquity never ceased to be cultivated in the Byzantine empire due to the impetus given to classical studies by the Academy of Athens in the 4th and 5th centuries, the vigor of the philosophical academy of Alexandria, and to the services of the University of Constantinople, which concerned itself entirely with secular subjects, to the exclusion of theology, [The faculty was composed exclusively of philosophers, scientists, rhetoricians, and philologists (cite book | last=Tatakes |first=Vasileios N. |coauthors=Moutafakis, Nicholas J. | title=Byzantine Philosophy | year=2003 | publisher=Hackett Publishing|isbn=0-872-20563-0|pages=189)] which was taught in the Patriarchical Academy. Even the latter offered instruction in the ancient classics, and included literary, philosophical, and scientific texts in its curriculum. The monastic schools concentrated upon the Bible, theology, and liturgy. Therefore, the monastic scriptoria expended most of their efforts upon the transcription of ecclesiastical manuscripts, while ancient-pagan literature was transcribed, summarized, excerpted, and annotated by laymen or enlightened bishops like Photios, Arethas of Caesarea, Eustathius of Thessalonica, and Basilius Bessarion. [cite journal |last=Anastos |first=Milton V. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1962 |month= |title=The History of Byzantine Science. Report on the Dumbarton Oaks Symposium of 1961 |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=16 |issue= |pages=409–411 |id= |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0070-7546(1962)16%3C409%3ATHOBSR%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0 |accessdate=2007-05-27|quote=|doi=10.2307/1291170 ]

Byzantine and Islamic science

During the Middle Ages, there was frequently an exchange of works between Byzantine and Islamic science. The Byzantine Empire initially provided the medieval Islamic world with Ancient and early Medieval Greek texts on astronomy, mathematics and philosophy for translation into Arabic as the Empire was the leading center of scientific scholarship in the region in the early Middle Ages. Later as Arab and other Muslim cultures became centers of scientific knowledge, Byzantine scientists such as Gregory Choniades translated Arabic texts on Islamic astronomy, mathematics and science into Medieval Greek, including the works of Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Ibn Yunus, al-Khazini (a Muslim scientist of Byzantine Greek descent),David Pingree (1964), "Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy", "Dumbarton Oaks Papers" 18: 135-60] Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī [citation|title=Reviews: "The Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Volume I: The Zij al- Ala'i" by Gregory Chioniades, David Pingree; "An Eleventh-Century Manual of Arabo-Byzantine Astronomy" by Alexander Jones|first=David A.|last=King|journal=Isis|volume=82|issue=1|date=March 1991|pages=116-8] and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī among others. There were also some Byzantine scientists who used Arabic transliterations to describe certain scientific concepts instead of the equivalent Ancient Greek terms (such as the use of the Arabic "talei" instead of the Ancient Greek "hososcopus"). Byzantine science thus played an important role in not only transmitting ancient Greek knowledge to Western Europe and the Islamic world, but in also transmitting Arabic knowledge to Western Europe, such as the transmission of the Tusi-couple, which later appeared in the work of Nicolaus Copernicus.cite web|author=George Saliba|title=Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe|date=2006-04-27|url=http://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883|accessdate=2008-03-01] Byzantine scientists also became acquainted with Sassanid and Indian astronomy through citations in some Arabic works.

Humanism and Renaissance

During the 12th century the Byzantines provided their model of early humanism as a renaissance of interest in classical authors. In Eustathius of Thessalonica Byzantine humanism found its most characteristic expression.Tatakes-Moutafakis, "Byzantine Philosophy", 110] During the 13th and 14th centuries, a period of intense creative activity, Byzantine humanism approached its zenith, and manifested a striking analogy to the contemporaneous Italian humanism. Byzantine humanism believed in the vitality of classical civilization, and of its sciences, and its proponents occupied themselves with scientific sciences.Tatakes-Moutafakis, "Byzantine Philosophy", 189]

Despite the political, and military decline of these last two centuries, the Empire saw a flourishing of science and literature, often described as the "Palaeologean" or "Last Byzantine Renaissance".cite book |last=Robins |first=Robert Henry |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Byzantine Grammarians: Their Place in History |year=1993 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location= |isbn=3-110-13574-4 |Chapter=Chapter I|pages=8] Some of this era's most eminent representatives are: Maximus Planudes, Manuel Moschopulus, Demetrius Triclinius and Thomas Magister. The Academy at Trebizond became a renowned center for the study of astronomy, and other mathematical sciences, and medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars. In the final century of the Empire Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying in person, and in writing ancient Greek grammatical, and literary studies to early Renaissance Italy, and among them Manuel Chrysoloras was involved over the never achieved union of the Churches.

ee also

*Byzantine scholars in Renaissance
*List of Byzantine scientists
*Science in the Middle Ages
*Islamic science

References