Elene (poem)

Elene is the longest of Cynewulf’s four signed poems. It is the fifth of six poems appearing in the "Vercelli" manuscript. The poem is the first English account of the finding of the Holy Cross by Saint Helena, mother of Emperor Constantine.

It is written in a West Saxon dialect, but certain Anglianisms and metrical evidence concerning false rhymes suggest it was written in a non-Anglian dialect.

It is 1,321 lines long.

Analysis

The story is loosely based on historical events, and takes place within an anachronistic setting that amalgamates wars of the fourth-century involving the Romans, the Huns, and the Franks. "Elene" fits into a sub-genre of "inventio", the search for sacrosanct relics of the saints. Cynewulf’s source for the legend of St. Helena's Finding of the Cross is likely the "Acta Cyriaci", and a version of it is written in the "Acta Sanctorum" for May 4.

From the start of the poem we learn that the setting is the sixth year of the Emperor Constantine's reign, and immediately we are introduced to Constantine, whose Roman army is at war with the combined forces of the Huns and Franks. Amidst the action, we learn the Roman army and the Northern tribes are encamped along the Danube river. One night Constantine is left wondering how his comparatively small army will triumph being immensely outnumbered by the enemy. He has the vision of the Cross and the next day orders a replica of it to be made before advance. An epic battle follows, and it is worth noting Cynewulf provides a description of the conflict with imagery so vivid that it can be regarded as some of the finest martial poetry to come out of the Anglo-Saxon period: [See Kennedy 1963, p.174]

:"Trumpets sang out loudly before the armies, the raven exulted in the action, the moist-feathered eagle watched the advance and the warring of brutal men. The wolf, denizen of the wood, sent up its song."

Following his miraculous victory, Constantine returns to his stately home and inquires into the origin of his vision. Upon his discovery of Christianity, he becomes a convert himself; subsequently, he sends his mother, Elene (St. Helena), on a mission to Jerusalem to find the Cross.

Here the main plotline of the story takes over. Cynewulf paints the scene of Elene’s sea voyage to Palestine, and it is “one of the outstanding brief sea-pictures in the Old English verse.” [See Kennedy 1963, p.175] On the landing in Jerusalem, the poem's focus shifts to Elene's interrogation of all the wise Jewish sages about Christ's crucifixion and possible whereabouts of the Cross. She starts with a group of 3,000 and eventually cuts it down to group of 500, but none will divulge any knowledge even when confronted with the threat of death.

However, one of the wise elders, Judas, succumbs to the tormenting tactics of Elene, who at one point throws Judas in a pit for a week, and cooperates in telling the truth. Many scholars believe that the entire interrogation passage is inferior to the rest of the poem; and it is apparent that Cynewulf falters into stilted language. Judas leads the mission to Calvary, and invokes the power of God in revealing the location of the Cross, asking for a miracle in exchange for his conversion to Christianity. The miracle occurs when a cloud of smoke rises from one spot, and thereupon the three crosses are found together. The Cross of Christ (the true Cross) is identified when its presence brings a dead man to life. Satan appears and admonishes Judas before threatening that he will engender a new king who will act his orders out.

Later Elene erects a church where the Holy Cross was found and places the decorated Cross within its walls. Following this, Judas converts and is consecrated as bishop, and ascribed the new name of Cyriacus. The nails used to crucify Christ are found by a second act of the divine: when their glowing brightness makes them visible through the ground.

The epilogue of the poem is devoted to the personal reflection of Cynewulf and his interpretation of Doomsday. Cynewulf tells of how he has experienced a spiritual metamorphosis. His depiction of the Last Judgement resembles a sort of Purgatory where people are divided into three groups, two of which undergo cleansing to reach salvation, while the third is damned to eternal Hell.

Cynewulf presents Elene as the “heroic warrior-queen who embodies both the rightful authority of the Christian State and the triumph of the Christian Church over Jewish Synagogue.” [See Klein 2006] She is very unlike the archetypal virgin martyr in Old English literature, who was often a Christian female who was trying to be converted by an authoritative pagan (see Juliana). In Elene's case, she holds power over the Jew, Judas, and successfully compels him to convert himself. From the sea-voyage onwards, Elene becomes the heroic subject of the story, as she leads her mission in a way that resembles the way Constantine leads his men into battle.

Anti-Semitism is a topic of discussion for scholars regarding the poem: Elene’s oppressive tactics towards the Jewish elders are rewarded in the end. [See Fulk 2003, p.99] A Marxist argument can also be made when looking at how Judas eventually submits to his oppressor. He arises from the pit as a heroic-type figure and it seems the reigns of authority Elene exercises only do good in the end. It is contended that this justifies the authority of royalty in Cynewulf’s time. [See Klein 2006] In terms of symbolism, the good-bad dichotomy, which is prevalent in Old English verse, finds itself in the oppositions of light and dark imagery in the poem. For instance, it is observed in the poem that Judas spends seven nights in a pit, and the “darkness” can be seen to convey his obstinacy in refusing to see the “light” of Christianity. [See Greenfield 1965, p.114 and Klein 2006]

Manuscript

"Elene" is contained in the "Vercelli Book", appearing on fol.121a-133b.

Notes

References

*Bradley, S.A.J, ed. and tr. 1982. "Anglo-Saxon Poetry". London: Everyman's Library
*Fulk, R.D. and Christopher M. Cain 2003. "A History of Old English Literature". Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
*Gradon, P.O.E., ed. 1958. "Cynewulf's Elene". London: Methuen
*Greenfield, Stanley B. 1965. "A Critical History of Old English Literature". New York: New York University Press
*Kennedy, Charles W. 1963. "Early English Christian Poetry". New York: Oxford University Press
*Klein, Stacy S. 2006. "Elene". "The Literary Encyclopedia". The Literary Dictionary Company. 30 October 2006.

External links

* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&UID=5398]