Juliana (poem)

Juliana [Exeter Book, fol.65b-76a] , is one of the four signed poems ascribed to the mysterious poet, Cynewulf. It is his second longest piece at 731 lines, although, at some time the manuscript was damaged so that presently we are missing two large portions of the text amounting to 130-140 lines. Like his other works, the characteristic runic signature is found interwoven into the closing lines of the text.

Overview

The poem's story is a saint’s life presented in Old English alliterative verse. It survives as a single copy in the Exeter Book, and is transmitted to us in late West-Saxon dialect; however, linguistic abnormalities in the text are indicative of the poem originally being written in an Anglian dialect. Cynewulf seems to draw his Juliana from a Latin "Life of Juliana" that was printed in the Acta Sanctorum of Bolland for February 16.

The plot of the poem unfolds thus: Juliana is a noblewoman living in the time of Maximian (d.310) when a senator named Eleusius asks for her hand in marriage. She steadfastly refuses, because he is a pagan and their marriage would conflict with her Christian faith. As consequence, Eleusius and her father whip her and then imprison her. While in prison she is visited by the devil in the guise of an angel, who pleads with her to submit to her husband and follow his pagan tendencies. Juliana, now in a dilemma, prays to God for guidance and she is answered by a voice that advises her to seize the angel and demand the truth. After doing so, a lengthy exchange follows where the devil confesses to all the evil deeds it has performed throughout history. The next day, Eleusius attempts to execute Juliana by burning her and immersing her in boiling lead. She survives both unscathed, due to the presence of a divine angel protecting her. Finally, she is beheaded; she suffers a death suitable for a martyr. Justly, Eleusis soon drowns on a voyage, while Juliana’s own body is venerably buried within the context of a saintly ceremony.

The entire story as told by Cynewulf deviates little from the Latin source he likely used, with the same “progress of action” and “phraseology” observed in both texts. However, there are some unsubtle differences worth mentioning. One is that the character of Eleusius is portrayed in Cynewulf’s text with a much more sinister and intolerant manner to his behaviour. [See Fulk 2003, p.100] In the Acta, Eleusius is presented as an “easy-going man,” willing to accept Christianity just as long as he is not baptized: a practice that would compromise his position as a powerful senator. In Cynewulf’s version, however, Eleusias eagerly worships the heathen gods, and his faith in the “devil-inspired idols” is equitable to Juliana’s faith in her own Christian God. Thus, Cynewulf polarizes Juliana and Eleusius in a way that is analogous to the conflict of good and evil. [See Wolf 1955, p.15] Another difference to be noted is the author's omission of Juliana's insistence in the Acta that she will only marry Eleusius if he becomes a prefect. This was likely left out by Cynewulf to show Juliana as a polished saint, and further magnify her polarization to Eleusius. [See Fulk 2003, p.100]

It is said that Cynewulf's Juliana seems to lack the emotional vigour and imagination of some of the poet’s other compositions. [See Bradley 1982, p.302] The language is thought to be “less elaborate,” but still maintains the rhetorical cunning that Cynewulf is accustomed to. [See Magennis 2005] As in his Elene, the Old English tradition of placing the characters and events of the story in a heroic setting is upheld; Juliana is celebrated as a martyr who defeats the advances of the devil. The idea of a woman figuring prominently in a tale such as this was not new to Anglo-Saxons. Germanic literature often permitted women to play instrumental roles in the heroic setting of events. For instance, through Bede’s writings we hear of such women providing the stimulus for political and religious developments in Britain. [See Bradley 1982, p.301]

Notes

References

*Bradley, S.A.J, ed. and tr. 1982. "Anglo-Saxon Poetry". London: Everyman's Library
*Fulk, R.D. and Christopher M. Cain 2003. "A History of Old English Literature". Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
*Magennis, Hugh 2005. " [http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&UID=4300 Juliana] ". "The Literary Encyclopedia". The Literary Dictionary Company. 30 October 2006.
*Woolf, Rosemary, ed. 1955. "Juliana." London: Methuen