Boy's surface/Proofs

Boy's surface/Proofs

Property of R. Bryant's parametrization

If "z" is replaced by the negative reciprocal of its complex conjugate, - {1 over z^star}, then the functions "g1", "g2", and "g3" of "z" are left unchanged.

Proof

Let "g1′" be obtained from "g1" by substituting "z" with - {1 over z^star}. Then we obtain: g_1' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( {- {1 over z^star} left( 1 - {1 over z^{star 4} } ight) over {1 over z^{star 6 - sqrt{5} {1 over z^{star 3 - 1} ight). Multiply both numerator and denominator by z^{star 6},: g_1' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( {-z^star (z^{star 4} - 1) over 1 - sqrt{5} z^{star 3} - z^{star 6} } ight).Multiply both numerator and denominator by -1,: g_1' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( {z^star (z^{star 4} - 1) over z^{star 6} + sqrt{5} z^{star 3} - 1} ight).

It is generally true for any complex number "z" and any integral power "n" that: (z^star)^n = (z^n)^star,therefore: g_1' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( { z^star (z^4 - 1)^star over (z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1)^star } ight), : g_1' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( - left( {z (1 - z^4) over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} ight)^star ight) therefore g_1' = g_1 since, for any complex number "z",: mathrm{Im} (-z^star) = mathrm(z).

Let "g2′" be obtained from "g2" by substituting "z" with - {1 over z^star}. Then we obtain: g_2' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} left( { - {1 over z^star} left( 1 + {1 over z^{star 4 ight) over {1 over z^{star 6 - sqrt{5} {1 over z^{star 3 - 1 } ight),:: = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} left( { z^star (z^{star 4} + 1) over z^{star 6} + sqrt{5} z^{star 3} - 1 } ight), :: = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} left( { z^star (z^{4 star} + 1) over z^{6 star} + sqrt{5} z^{3 star} - 1 } ight), :: = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} left( { z^star (z^4 + 1)^star over (z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1)^star } ight), :: = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} left( left( { z (z^4 + 1) over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} ight)^star ight), therefore g_2' = g_2 since, for any complex number "z",: mathrm{Re} (z^star) = mathrm{Re} (z).

Let "g3′" be obtained from "g3" by substituting "z" with - {1 over z^star}. Then we obtain: g_3' = mathrm{Im} left( { 1 + {1 over z^{star 6 over {1 over z^{star 6 - sqrt{5} {1 over z^{star 3 - 1} ight), :: = mathrm{Im} left( { z^{star 6} + 1 over 1 - sqrt{5} z^{star 3} - z^{star 6 ight), :: = mathrm{Im} left( { z^{6 star} + 1 over 1 - sqrt{5} z^{3 star} - z^{6 star ight), :: = mathrm{Im} left( - { (z^6 + 1)^star over (z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1)^star} ight), :: = mathrm{Im} left( - left( { z^6 + 1 over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} ight)^star ight), therefore g_3' = g_3. Q.E.D.

ymmetry of the Boy's surface

Boy's surface has 3-fold symmetry. This means that it has an axis of discrete rotational symmetry: any 120° turn about this axis will leave the surface looking exactly the same. The Boy's surface can be cut into three mutually congruent pieces.

Proof

Two complex-algebraic identities will be used in this proof: let "U" and "V" be complex numbers, then: mathrm{Re}(U V) = mathrm{Re}(U) mathrm{Re}(V) - mathrm{Im}(U) mathrm{Im}(V), ,!: mathrm{Im}(U V) = mathrm{Re}(U) mathrm{Im}(V) + mathrm{Im}(U) mathrm{Re}(V). ,!

Given a point "P(z)" on the Boy's surface with complex parameter "z" inside the unit disk in the complex plane, we will show that rotating the parameter "z" 120° about the origin of the complex plane is equivalent to rotating the Boy's surface 120° about the "Z"-axis (still using R. Bryant's parametric equations given above).

Let: z' = z e^{i 2 pi / 3} ,!be the rotation of parameter "z". Then the "raw" (unscaled) coordinates "g1", "g2", and "g3" will be converted, respectively, to "g′1", "g′2", and "g′3".

Substitute "z′" for "z" in "g3(z)", resulting in: g_3'(z') = mathrm{Im} left( {1 + z'^6 over z'^6 + sqrt{5} z'^3 - 1} ight) - {1 over 2}, : g_3'(z) = mathrm{Im} left( {1 + z^6 e^{i 4 pi} over z^6 e^{i 4 pi} + sqrt{5} z^{i 2 pi} - 1} ight) - {1 over 2}. Since e^{i 4 pi} = e^{i 2 pi} = 1, it follows that: g_3' = mathrm{Im}left( {1 + z^6 over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} ight) - {1 over 2} therefore g_3' = g_3. This means that the axis of rotational symmetry will be parallel to the "Z"-axis.

Plug in "z′" for "z" in "g1(z)", resulting in: g_1'(z) = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( { z e^{i 2 pi / 3} (1 - z^4 e^{i 8 pi / 3}) over z^6 e^{i 4 pi} + sqrt{5} z^3 e^{i 2 pi} - 1} ight). Noticing that e^{i 8 pi / 3} = e^{i 2 pi / 3},: g_1' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( {z e^{i 2 pi / 3} (1 - z^4 e^{i 2 pi / 3}) over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} ight). Then, letting e^{i 4 pi / 3} = e^{-i 2 pi / 3} in the denominator yields: g_1' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Im} left( { z (e^{i 2 pi / 3} - z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} ight).

Now, applying the complex-algebraic identity, and letting: z" = {z over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} we get: g_1' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(e^{i 2 pi / 3} - z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) + mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(e^{i 2 pi / 3} - z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ight] . Both mathrm{Re} and mathrm{Im} are distributive with respect to addition, and: mathrm{Re}(e^{i heta}) = cos heta, ,!: mathrm{Im}(e^{i heta}) = sin heta, ,!due to Euler's formula, so that: g_1' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Im}(z") left( cos {2 pi over 3} - mathrm{Re}(z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ight) + mathrm{Re}(z") left( sin {2 pi over 3} - mathrm{Im}(z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ight) ight] . Applying the complex-algebraic identities again, and simplifying cos {2 pi over 3} to -1/2 and sin {2 pi over 3} to sqrt{3} / 2, produces: g_1' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Im}(z") left( -{1 over 2} - [ mathrm{Re}(z^4) mathrm{Re}(e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) - mathrm{Im}(z^4) mathrm{Im}(e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ] ight) + mathrm{Re}(z") left( {sqrt{3} over 2} - [ mathrm{Im}(z^4) mathrm{Re}(e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) + mathrm{Re}(z^4) mathrm{Im} (e^{-i 2 pi / 3})] ight) ight] . Simplify constants,: g_1' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Im}(z") left( -{1 over 2} - left [ -{1 over 2} mathrm{Re}(z^4) + {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight] ight) + mathrm{Re}(z") left( {sqrt{3} over 2} - left [ -{1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z^4) - {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Re}(z^4) ight] ight) ight] ,therefore: g_1' = -{3 over 2} left [ -{1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") + {1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) - {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) + {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") + {1 over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) + {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) ight] .

Applying the complex-algebraic identity to the original "g1" yields: g_1 = -{3 over 2} [ mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(1 - z^4) + mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(1 - z^4) ] , : g_1 = -{3 over 2} [ mathrm{Im}(z") (1 - mathrm{Re}(z^4)) + mathrm{Re}(z") (-mathrm{Im}(z^4))] , : g_1 = -{3 over 2} [ mathrm{Im}(z") - mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) - mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) ] .

Plug in "z′" for "z" in "g2(z)", resulting in: g_2' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} left( {z e^{i 2 pi / 3} (1 + z^4 e^{i 8 pi / 3}) over z^6 e^{i 4 pi} + sqrt{5} z^3 e^{i 2 pi} - 1} ight) .Simplify the exponents,: g_2' = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} left( {z e^{i 2 pi / 3} (1 + z^4 e^{i 2 pi / 3}) over z^6 + sqrt{5} z^3 - 1} ight), :: = -{3 over 2} mathrm{Re} ( z" (e^{i 2 pi / 3} + z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3})).

Now apply the complex-algebraic identity to "g′2", obtaining: g_2' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(e^{i 2 pi / 3} + z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) - mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(e^{i 2 pi / 3} + z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ight] . Distribute the mathrm{Re} with respect to addition, and simplify constants,: g_2' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Re}(z") left(-{1 over 2} + mathrm{Re}(z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ight) - mathrm{Im}(z") left({sqrt{3} over 2} + mathrm{Im}(z^4 e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ight) ight] . Apply the complex-algebraic identities again,: g_2' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Re}(z") left(-{1 over 2} + mathrm{Re}(z^4) mathrm{Re}(e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) - mathrm{Im}(z^4) mathrm{Im}(e^{-i 2 pi over 3}) ight) - mathrm{Im}(z") left({sqrt{3} over 2} + mathrm{Im}(z^4) mathrm{Re}(e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) + mathrm{Re}(z^4) mathrm{Im}(e^{-i 2 pi / 3}) ight) ight] . Simplify constants,: g_2' = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Re}(z") left( -{1 over 2} - {1 over 2} mathrm{Re}(z^4) + {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight) - mathrm{Im}(z") left({sqrt{3} over 2} - {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Re}(z^4) - {1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight) ight] , then distribute with respect to addition,: g_2' = -{3 over 2} left [ -{1 over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") - {1 over 2}mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) + {sqrt{3}over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) - {sqrt{3}over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") + {sqrt{3}over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) + {1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight] .

Applying the complex-algebraic identity to the original "g2" yields: g_2 = -{3 over 2} left( mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(1 + z^4) - mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(1 + z^4) ight), : g_2 = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Re}(z") (1 + mathrm{Re}(z^4)) - mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight] , : g_2 = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Re}(z") + mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) - mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight] .

The raw coordinates of the pre-rotated point are: g_1 = -{3 over 2} [ mathrm{Im}(z") - mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) - mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) ] , : g_2 = -{3 over 2} left [ mathrm{Re}(z") + mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) - mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight] , and the raw coordinates of the post-rotated point are: g_1' = -{3 over 2} left [ -{1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") + {1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) - {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) + {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") + {1 over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) + {sqrt{3} over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) ight] , : g_2' = -{3 over 2} left [ -{1 over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") - {1 over 2}mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) + {sqrt{3}over 2} mathrm{Re}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) - {sqrt{3}over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") + {sqrt{3}over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Re}(z^4) + {1 over 2} mathrm{Im}(z") mathrm{Im}(z^4) ight] . Comparing these four coordinates we can verify that: g_1' = -{1 over 2} g_1 + {sqrt{3} over 2} g_2, : g_2' = -{sqrt{3} over 2} g_1 -{1 over 2} g_2. In matrix form, this can be expressed as: egin{bmatrix} g_1' \ g_2' \ g_3' end{bmatrix} =egin{bmatrix} -{1 over 2} & {sqrt{3}over 2} & 0 \ -{sqrt{3}over 2} & -{1 over 2} & 0 \ 0 & 0 & 1 end{bmatrix} egin{bmatrix} g_1 \ g_2 \ g_3 end{bmatrix}= egin{bmatrix} cos {-2 pi over 3} & -sin {-2 pi over 3} & 0 \ sin {-2 pi over 3} & cos {-2 pi over 3} & 0 \ 0 & 0 & 1 end{bmatrix} egin{bmatrix} g_1 \ g_2 \ g_3 end{bmatrix}.Therefore rotating "z" by 120° to "z′" on the complex plane is equivalent to rotating "P(z)" by -120° about the "Z"-axis to "P(z′)". This means that the Boy's surface has 3-fold symmetry, "quod erat demonstrandum".


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