United States invasion of the Dominican Republic

Infobox Military Conflict
conflict= Operation Power Pack
date=April 28, 1965 – September, 1966
place=Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
casus=Military revolt
Fear of the PRD as Communists
result=Decisive US victory.
Ceasefire called.
Juan Bosch excluded from Presidency.
Election of Joaquín Balaguer.
commander1= Lyndon B. Johnson
Gen. Robert York
commander2= Col. Francisco Caamaño
combatant1= flag|United States
(IAPF) Inter-American Peace Force
(CEFA) Dominican Armed Forces Training Center
(SIM) Dominican Military Intelligence Service
combatant2= flagicon|Dominican Republic Dominican Armed Forces Constitutionalists
PRD irregulars
strength1=42,000 US Marines
82nd Airborne Division
2,200 (IAPF) Personnel
strength2=5,000
casualties1= 13 US soldiers dead,
200+ wounded
20+ (IAPF) Personnel
casualties2= 500+ guerrillas died
100 captured; 3000+ civilians killed

The United States invasion of the Dominican Republic (code-named Operation "Power Pack") occurred in 1965. The Marines landed on April 28 and were later supported by elements of the Army’s 82nd Airborne Division. The intervention ended in September 1966.

Background

After a period of political instability following the assassination of long-time Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo in 1961, candidate Juan Bosch, a founder of the anti-Trujilloist Dominican Revolutionary Party, was elected President in December, 1962 and inaugurated in February 1963. His left-leaning policies, including land redistribution and the nationalization of certain foreign holdings, led to a military coup seven months later by a right-wing faction of the military led by General Elías Wessin. Wessin controlled the Centro de Entrenamiento de las Fuerzas Armadas (Armed Forces Training Center or "CEFA"), an elite group of about 2000 highly trained infantry. Stationed at the San Isidro Air Base, it was unlike the regular army units: it was supplied with tanks, recoilless rifles and artillery, as well as its own attack aircraft. It was a quasi-independent organization, originally established by Ramfis Trujillo, the son of the former dictator and was formed to protect the government and keep watch over the national guard, navy and air force. Elías Wessin had stated: "The Communist doctrine, Marxist-Leninist, Castroite, or whatever it is called, is now outlawed." [Draper, Theodore: The Dominican Crisis, Commentary Magazine Vol. 40 • December 1965 • No. 6]

Subsequently, power was turned over to a civilian triumvirate. The new leaders quickly abolished the constitution, declaring it "nonexistent."

The two years that followed were filled with strikes and conflicts. On 24 April 1965, a group of young officers within the armed forces, led by Colonel Francisco Caamaño, rose up against the triumvirate. This action was accelerated when the Chief of Staff of the Dominican armed forces, General Marcos Rivera, attempted to arrest four army "conspirators," but was himself arrested instead. The pro-Bosch rebels, known as "Constitutionalists" for their focus on restoring the constitutionally elected president, took to the streets, swiftly seizing the national palace and the government radio and television stations in the capital, Santo Domingo and demanding Bosch's return. Francisco Caamaño was one of the leader for the Constitutionalists. Rafael Molina Ureña was installed as provisional president. In the days that followed, Constitutionalists clashed with internal security agents and the right-wing military elements of the CEFA.

The Constitutionalists handed out firearms in an unsupervised and uncontrolled manner, resulting in the creation of unruly armed gangs, known loosely as "Los Tigueres", and arbitrary violence. Both sides were heavily armed and civilians were caught in the crossfire. Washington began immediate preparations for the evacuation of its citizens and other foreign nationals who might wish to leave the Dominican Republic.

The extent of participation by "communists or castroites", including the Dominican 14th of June Revolutionary group, has been disputed.

US Invasion

Initial US military action was limited to the evacuation by United States Marines of U.S. and other civilians from the city of Santo Domingo. A landing zone was established at the Hotel Embajador in central Santo Domingo for this purpose.

The pro-government forces, called Loyalists, failed to regain control of Santo Domingo, and a demoralized CEFA retreated to its base at San Isidro on the east side of the Ozama River. General Wessin and the last leader of the deposed governing regime, Donald Reid - best know as "El Americano" (The American), both requested U.S. intervention.

U.S. President Lyndon Johnson, convinced of the defeat of the Loyalist forces and fearing the creation of "a second Cuba" [Stephen G. Rabe, "The Johnson Doctrine", Presidential Studies Quarterly 36] on America's doorstep, ordered U.S. forces to restore order. Citing as an official reason for the invasion the need to protect the lives of foreigners, none of whom had been killed or wounded, a fleet of 41 vessels was sent to blockade the island, and an invasion was launched by Marines and elements of the United States Army's 82nd Airborne Division. Also, around 75 members of E company of the 7th Special Forces Group were deployed. Ultimately, 42,000 Soldiers and Marines were ordered to the Dominican Republic. The United States along with the Organization of American States (OAS) formed an inter-American military force to assist in the intervention in the Dominican Republic. Later, the Inter-American Peace Force (IAPF) was formally established on May 23. In addition to the United States military presence, the following troops were sent by each country; Brazil 1130, Honduras 250, Paraguay 184, Nicaragua 160, Costa Rica 21 military police, and El Salvador 3 staff officers.

By May 14, the Americans resorted to a ruse: established a "safety corridor" connecting the San Isidro Air Base and the Duarte Bridge to the Embajador Hotel and United States Embassy in the center of Santo Domingo, essentially sealing off the Constitutionalist area of Santo Domingo. Road blocks were established and patrols ran continuously. Some 6,500 people from many nations were evacuated to safety. In addition, the US forces airlifted in large relief supplies for Dominican nationals. The fighting continued until 31 August 1965 when a truce was declared. Most American troops left shortly afterwards as policing and peacekeeping operations were turned over to Brazilian troops, but some U.S. military presence remained until September 1966.

In 1966, former President Joaquín Balaguer (Trujillo's 4th puppet president) was elected over Juan Bosch--with the overt support of the US government. Bosch would never regain power. Relative political stability followed as the initially oppressive yet highly politically crafty Balaguer would go on to dominate Dominican politics for twenty-two years.

Casualties

Military

* A total of 13 American soldiers died during the operation, mostly by sniper fire by the PRD. Over 200 were wounded. [ [http://www.bragg.army.mil/history/HistoryPage/powerpack/PowerPack.htm Operation Power Pack] ]
* A total of 20 (IAPF) Personnel were killed.Fact|date=July 2007

Dominican

* U.S. [ [http://www-cgsc.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/yates/yates.asp Combined Arms Research Library ] ] and DominicanFact|date=July 2007 sources both maintain that at least 3,000 civilians were killed.

Notable participants

* Mitchell Werbell III, OSS/CIA operative, soldier of fortune.
* James Kimsey, went on to found America Online.

References

ee also

*History of the Dominican Republic
*Johnson Doctrine
*That Was the Year That Was

External links

* [http://www.bragg.army.mil/history/HistoryPage/powerpack/PowerPack.htm 82^nd Airborne History Page] - Operation Power Pack: A "Road" Test for the 82^nd Airborne Division
* Warnock, A. Timothy. "Dominican Crisis: Operation POWER PACK. Short of War: Major USA Contingency Operations" edited by A. Timothy Warnock. Air Force History and Museums Program, 2000. pp 63-74.
* [http://www.psywarrior.com/DomRepublicPsyop.html Dominican Republic PSYOP] , reportage from SGM Herbert A. Friedman (ret)