Synaptic plasticity

Synaptic plasticity

In neuroscience, synaptic plasticity is the ability of the connection, or synapse, between two neurons to change in strength. There are several underlying mechanisms that cooperate to achieve synaptic plasticity, including changes in the quantity of neurotransmitter released into a synapse and changes in how effectively cells respond to those neurotransmitters [cite journal
last=Gaiarsa
first=J.L.
coauthors=Caillard O., and Ben-Ari Y.
year=2002
title=Long-term plasticity at GABAergic and glycinergic synapses: mechanisms and functional significance
url=
journal=Trends in Neurosciences
issn=0166-2236
volume=25
issue=11
pages=564–570
doi=
] . Since memories are postulated to be represented by vastly interconnected networks of synapses in the brain, synaptic plasticity is one of the important neurochemical foundations of learning and memory ("see Hebbian theory").

Biochemical mechanisms

Two known molecular mechanisms for synaptic plasticity were revealed by research in laboratories such as that of Eric Kandel. The first mechanism involves modification of existing synaptic proteins (typically protein kinases) resulting in altered synaptic functioncite journal
last=Shi
first=S.H.
coauthors=Hayashi Y., Petralia R.S., Zaman S.H., Wenthold R., Svoboda K., Malinow R.
year=1999
title=Rapid spine delivery and redistribution of AMPA receptors after synaptic NMDA receptor activation
url=
journal=Science
issn=0193-4511
volume=284
issue=5421
pages=1811–1816
pmid=10364548
] .The second mechanism depends on second messenger neurotransmitters regulating gene transcription and changes in the levels of key proteins at synapses. This second mechanism can be triggered by protein phosphorylation but takes longer and lasts longer, providing the mechanism for long-lasting memory storage. Long-lasting changes in the efficacy of synaptic connections (long-term potentiation, or LTP) between two neurons can involve the making and breaking of synaptic contacts.

A synapse's strength also depends on the number of ion channels it has [cite journal
last=Debanne
first=D.
coauthors=Daoudal G., Sourdet V., and Russier M.
year=2003
title=Brain plasticity and ion channels
url=
journal=Journal of Physiology, Paris
issn=0928-4257
volume=97
issue=4-6
pages=403–414
doi=10.1016/j.jphysparis.2004.01.004
] .Several facts suggest that neurons change the density of receptors on their postsynaptic membranes as a mechanism for changing their own excitability in response to stimuli. In a dynamic process that is maintained in equilibrium, NMDA and AMPA receptors are added to the membrane by exocytosis and removed by endocytosiscite journal
last=Song
first=I.
coauthors=Huganir R.L.
year=2002
title=Regulation of AMPA receptors during synaptic plasticity
url=
journal=Trends in Neurosciences
issn=0166-2236
volume=25
issue=11
pages=578–589
doi=10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02270-1
] cite journal
last=Pérez-Otaño
first=I.
coauthors=Ehlers M.D.
year=2005
title=Homeostatic plasticity and NMDA receptor trafficking
url=http://www.psychiatry.wustl.edu/zorumski/journal%20club/Perez-Otano%20and%20Ehlers%209_23.pdf
format=PDF
journal=Trends in Neurosciences
issn=0166-2236
volume=28
issue=5
pages=229–238
accessdate=2007-06-08
doi=10.1016/j.tins.2005.03.004
] .These processes, and by extension the number of receptors on the membrane, can be altered by synaptic activity. Experiments have shown that AMPA receptors are delivered to the membrane due to repetitive NMDAR activation .

If the strength of a synapse is only reinforced by stimulation or weakened by its lack, a positive feedback loop will develop, leading some cells never to fire and some to fire too much. But two regulatory forms of plasticity, called scaling and metaplasticity, also exist to provide negative feedback. Synaptic scaling serves to maintain the strengths of synapses relative to each other, lowering amplitudes of small excitatory postsynaptic potentials in response to continual excitation and raising them after prolonged blockage or inhibition. This effect occurs gradually over hours or days, by changing the numbers of NMDA receptors at the synapse (Pérez-Otaño and Ehlers, 2005). Metaplasticity, another form of negative feedback, reduces the effects of plasticity over time. Thus, if a cell has been affected by a lot of plasticity in the past, metaplasticity makes future plasticity less effective. Since LTP and LTD (long-term depression) rely on the influx of Ca2+ through NMDA channels, metaplasticity may be due to changes in NMDA receptors, for example changes in their subunits to allow the concentration of Ca2+ in the cell to be lowered more quickly.

Theoretical mechanisms

A bi-directional model, describing both LTP and LTD, of synaptic plasticity has proved necessary for a number of different learning mechanisms in computational neuroscience, neural networks, and biophysics. Three major hypotheses for the molecular nature of this plasticity have been well-studied, and none are required to be the exclusive mechanism:
# Change in the probability of glutamate release.
# Insertion or removal of postsynaptic AMPA receptors.
# Phosphorylation and de-phosphorylation inducing a change in AMPA receptor conductance.

Of these, the first two hypotheses have been recently mathematically examined to have identical calcium-dependent dynamics which provides strong theoretical evidence for a calcium-based model of plasticity, which in a linear model where the total number of receptors are conserved looks like

:frac{d W_i(t)}{d t}=frac{1}{ au( [Ca^{2+}] _i)}left(Omega( [Ca^{2+}] _i)-W_i ight),

where W_i is the synaptic weight of the ith input axon, au is a time constant dependent on the insertion and removal rates of neurotransmitter receptors, which is dependent on [Ca^{2+}] , the concentration of calcium. Omega=eta A_m^{ m fp} is also a function of the concentration of calcium that depends linearly on the number of receptors on the membrane of the neuron at some fixed point. Both Omega and au are found experimentally and agree on results from both hypotheses. The model makes important simplifications that make it unsuited for actual experimental predictions, but provides a significant basis for the hypothesis of a calcium-based synaptic plasticity dependence. [cite journal |last=Shouval |first=Harel Z. |authorlink=Harel Shouval |coauthors=Gastone C. Castellani, Brian S. Blais, Luk C. Yeung, Leon N. Cooper |year=2002 |month= |title=Converging evidence for a simplified biophysical model of synaptic plasticity |journal=Biological Cybernetics |volume=87 |issue= |pages=383–391 |id= |url=http://physics.brown.edu/physics/researchpages/Ibns/Lab%20Publications%20(PDF)/converging.pdf |accessdate= 2007-11-12 |quote=|doi=10.1007/s00422-002-0362-x ]

ee also

* Hebbian theory
* BCM theory
* Long-term potentiation (LTP)
* Long-term depression (LTD)
* Spike timing dependent plasticity (STDP)
* Neural Facilitation (Short-term plasticity)
* Homeostatic plasticity

References

*
* Hawkins, R.D., Kandel, E.R., & Bailey, C.H. (June 2006). Molecular Mechanisms of Memory Storage in Aplysia. Biological Bulletin, 210, 174-191.

External links

* [http://diwww.epfl.ch/~gerstner/SPNM/node71.html Overview]
* [http://cnr.iop.kcl.ac.uk/default.aspx?pageid=169 Finnerty lab, MRC Centre for Neurodegeneration Research, London]

Videos, podcasts

* [http://videocast.nih.gov/PastEvents.asp?c=16 Synaptic plasticity: Multiple mechanisms and functions] - a lecture by Robert Malenka, M.D., Ph.D., Stanford University. Video podcast, runtime: 01:05:17.


Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Нужна курсовая?

Look at other dictionaries:

  • synaptic plasticity — Change in the properties of a synapse, usually in the context of learning and memory. Very few synapses provide simple 1:1 transfer of action potentials, and very small changes in the efficiency of a synapse (usually mediated by changes in either …   Dictionary of molecular biology

  • synaptic plasticity — the ability of synapses to change as circumstances require. They may alter function, such as increasing or decreasing their sensitivity; or they may increase or decrease in actual numbers. This phenomenon is thought to be the main source of the… …   Medical dictionary

  • Plasticity — generally means ability to permanently change or deform. (It differs from elasticity , which refers to ability to change temporarily and revert back to original form.)More specific meanings include:In the sciences* Plasticity (physics): In… …   Wikipedia

  • Synaptic augmentation — Augmentation is one of four components of short term synaptic plasticity that increases the probability of releasing synaptic vesicles during and after repetitive stimulation such that :A(t) = [{ m Transmitter Release}(t)/ { m Transmitter… …   Wikipedia

  • Synaptic weight — In neuroscience and computer science, synaptic weight refers to the strength or amplitude of a connection between two nodes, corresponding in biology to the amount of influence the firing of one neuron has on another. The term is typically used… …   Wikipedia

  • Nonsynaptic plasticity — Brain connectivity network Nonsynaptic plasticity is a form of neuroplasticity that involves modification of ion channel function in the axon, dendrites, and cell body that results in specific changes in the integration of EPSPs and IPSPs, thus… …   Wikipedia

  • Developmental plasticity — is a general term referring to changes in neural connections during development as a result of environmental interactions as well as neural changes induced by learning. Much like neuroplasticity or brain plasticity, developmental plasticity is… …   Wikipedia

  • Spike timing dependent plasticity — (STDP) is a general term for functional changes in neurons and at synapses that are sensitive to the timing of action potentials in connected neurons. The phrase STDP typically refers to increases or decreases in the efficacy of synaptic… …   Wikipedia

  • Motor unit plasticity — The motor unit consists of a voluntary alpha motoneuron and all of the collective muscle fibers that it controls, known as the effector muscle. The alpha motoneuron communicates with acetylcholine receptors on the motor end plate of the effector… …   Wikipedia

  • neuronal plasticity — Ability of nerve cells to change their properties eg. by sprouting new processes, making new synapses or altering the strength of existing synapses. See long term potentiation and synaptic plasticity …   Dictionary of molecular biology

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”