Geography of Tibet

This article concerns the geography of Historic Tibet, which includes, but is not the same as the present-day Tibet Autonomous Region. For the non-political geographical region, see Tibetan Plateau.

Yamdrok tso.

The geography of Tibet consists of the high mountains, lakes and rivers lying between Central, East and South Asia. Traditionally, Western (European and American) sources have regarded Tibet as being in Central Asia, though today's maps show a trend toward considering all of modern China, including Tibet, to be part of East Asia.^{[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]} Tibet is often called "the roof of the world," comprising table-lands averaging over 4,950 metres above the sea with peaks at 6,000 to 7,500 m, including Mount Everest.

Description

It is bounded on the north and east by the Central China Plain, on the west by the Kashmir Region of India and on the south by Nepal, India and Bhutan. Most of Tibet sits atop a geological structure known as the Tibetan Plateau which includes the Himalaya and many of the highest mountain peaks in the world.

High mountain peaks include Changtse, Lhotse, Makalu, Gauri Sankar, Gurla Mandhata Cho Oyu, Jomolhari, Gyachung Kang, Gyala Peri, Mount Kailash, Kawagebo, Khumbutse, Melungtse, Mount Nyainqentanglha Namcha Barwa, Mount Nyainqentanglha, Shishapangma and Yangra . Mountain passes include Cherko la, and North Col. Smaller mountains include Mount Gephel and Gurla Mandhata.

Regions

Physically, Tibet may be divided into two parts, the "lake region" in the west and north-west, and the "river region", which spreads out on three sides of the former on the east, south, and west. Both regions receive limited amounts of rainfall as they lie in the rain shadow of the Himalayas, however the region names are useful in contrasting their hydrological structures, and also in contrasting their different cultural uses which is nomadic in the lake region and agricultural in the river region.^[8] On the south it is bounded by the Himalayas, on the north by a broad mountain system. The system at no point narrows to a single range; generally there are three or four across its breadth. As a whole the system forms the watershed between rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean – the Indus, Brahmaputra and Salween and its tributaries – and the streams flowing into the undrained salt lakes to the north.

The lake region extends from the Pangong Tso Lake in Ladakh, Lake Rakshastal, Yamdrok Lake and Lake Manasarovar near the source of the Indus River, to the sources of the Salween, the Mekong and the Yangtze. Other lakes include Dagze Co, Nam Co, and Pagsum Co. The lake region is an arid and wind-swept desert. This region is called the Chang Tang (Byang sang) or 'Northern Plateau' by the people of Tibet. It is some 1100 km (700 mi) broad, and covers an area about equal to that of France. Due to its great distance from the ocean it is extremely arid and possesses no river outlet. The mountain ranges are spread out, rounded, disconnected, separated by flat valleys relatively of little depth. The country is dotted over with large and small lakes, generally salt or alkaline, and intersected by streams. Due to the presence of discontinuous permafrost over the Chang Tang, the soil is boggy and covered with tussocks of grass, thus resembling the Siberian tundra. Salt and fresh-water lakes are intermingled. The lakes are generally without outlet, or have only a small effluent. The deposits consist of soda, potash, borax and common salt. The lake region is noted for a vast number of hot springs, which are widely distributed between the Himalaya and 34° N., but are most numerous to the west of Tengri Nor (north-west of Lhasa). So intense is the cold in this part of Tibet that these springs are sometimes represented by columns of ice, the nearly boiling water having frozen in the act of ejection.

The river region is characterized by fertile mountain valleys and includes the Yarlung Tsangpo River (the upper courses of the Brahmaputra) and its major tributary, the Nyang River, the Salween, the Yangtze, the Mekong, and the Yellow River. The Yarlung Tsangpo Canyon, formed by a horseshoe bend in the river where it flows around Namcha Barwa, is the deepest, and possibly longest canyon in the world.^[9] Among the mountains there are many narrow valleys. The valleys of Lhasa, Shigatse, Gyantse and the Brahmaputra are free from permafrost, covered with good soil and groves of trees, well irrigated, and richly cultivated.

The South Tibet Valley is formed by the Yarlung Zangbo River during its middle reaches, where it travels from west to east. The valley is approximately 1200 kilometres long and 300 kilometres wide. The valley descends from 4500 metres above sea level to 2800 metres. The mountains on either side of the valley are usually around 5000 metres high.^[10][11] Lakes here include Lake Paiku and Lake Puma Yumco.

The Effects of Climate Warming

The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said that the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term; but issued a strong warning:

"Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world." "In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows." "In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges. Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril."^[12]

Tibet during the Ice Age

Today Tibet is the most essential heating surface of the atmosphere. During the Last Ice Age a c. 2.4 million km² ice sheet covered the plateau.^{[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39]}This glaciation took place in correspondence to a lowering of the snowline by 1200 m. For the Last Glacial Maximum this means a depression of the average annual temperature by 7 to 8°C at a minor precipitation compared with that one of today. Owing to this drop in temperature a supposed drier climate has partly been compensated with regard to the glacier feeding by a minor evaporation and an increased relative humidity. Due to its great extension this glaciation in the subtropics was the most important climatically foreign element on earth. With an albedo about 80-90% this ice area of Tibet has reflected an at least 4 times greater global radiation energy per surface into space than the further inland ices at a higher geographical latitude. At that time the most essential heating surface of the atmosphere - which at present, i.e. interglacially, is the Tibetan plateau - was the most important cooling surface.^{[40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60]} The annual low-pressure area induced by heat above Tibet as a motor of the summer monsoon was lacking. The glaciation thus caused a breaking-off of the summer monsoon with all the global-climatic consequences, e.g. the pluvials in the Sahara, the expansion of the Thar desert, the heavier dust influx into the Arabian Sea etc., and also the downward shifting of the timber line and all forest-belts from the alpine-boreal forests as far down as to the semi-humid mediterranean forest which has replaced the Holocene monsoon-tropical forests on the Indian subcontinent. But also the movements of animals including the Javan Rusa far into South Asia are a consequence of this glaciation. Despite a great evaporation ablation caused by heavy insolation, the discharge of the glaciers into the Inner-Asian basins was sufficient for the creation of meltwater lakes in the Qaidam Basin, the Tarim Basin and the Gobi Desert. The drop in temperature (see above) was in favour of their development. Thus, the clay fraction produced by the ground scouring of the important glaciation was ready to be blown-out. The blow-out of the limnites and the Aeolian long-distance transport were connected to the katabatic winds. Accordingly, the Tibetan glaciation was the actual cause of the enormous loess production and the transport of the material into the Chinese middle- and lowlands continuing to the east.^[61] During the Ice Age the katabatic air current - the name 'winter monsoon' is not quite correct - blew all year round. The enormous uplift of Tibet by approx. 10 mm/y measured by triangulations since the 19th century and confirmed by glaciogemorphological findings as well as by seismological investigations equals the uplift of the Himalaya. However, these amounts of uplift are far too important as to a primarily tectonic uplift of the high plateau which only takes place epirogenetically. Actually they can be understood the better by a superimposed glacioisostatic compensation movement of Tibet about 650 m.^{[62][63][64][65][66]}

An alternative view held by some scientists^{[67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76]} is that the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau have remained restricted over the entire last glacial cycle. These contributions ignore the glacial geological data published since 1974 in the literature referred to in Kuhle (2004),^[77] which are relevant as to the maximum ice extent.

Gallery

• 

  Himalayas near Lhasa.

• 

  Tibet is located on the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest region.

• 

  The Tibetan plateau lies between the Himalayan range to the south and the Taklamakan plain to the north.

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  Lake Pangong Tso.

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  Glacier-capped mountains in Tibet.

• Animation of glacier-capped mountains in Tibet.

See also

• Rongbuk Glacier
• Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau

Notes

1. ^ "plateaus". http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/plateaus-article.html. 
2. ^ "East Asia Region". http://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/04ear/c07.html. 
3. ^ "UNESCO Collection of History of Civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV". http://unesco.culture.free.fr/asia-new/html_eng/volume42.htm. Retrieved 2009-02-19. 
4. ^ Shakabpa, Tsepon; Victor C. Falkenheim and Turrell V. Wylie. "Tibet". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117343/Tibet. Retrieved 2008-04-27. 
5. ^ Illustrated Atlas of the World (1986) Rand McNally & Company. ISBN 528-83190-9 pp. 164–5
6. ^ Atlas of World History (1998) HarperCollins. ISBN 0-72-301025-0 pg. 39
7. ^ Hopkirk 1983, pg. 1
8. ^ "Tibet: Agricultural Regions". http://www.tew.org/geography/t2000.agricultural.html. Retrieved 2007-08-06. 
9. ^ "The World's Biggest Canyon". www.china.org. http://www.china.org.cn/english/MATERIAL/185555.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-29. 
10. ^ Yang Qinye and Zheng Du. Tibetan Geography. China Intercontinental Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 7508506650. http://books.google.com/books?id=4q_XoMACOxkC&pg=PA30&dq=%22South+Tibet+Valley%22&ie=ISO-8859-1&output=html. 
11. ^ Zheng Du, Zhang Qingsong, Wu Shaohong: Mountain Geoecology and Sustainable Development of the Tibetan Plateau (Kluwer 2000), ISBN 0-7923-6688-3, p. 312;
12. ^ Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official. Reported 18/Aug/2009.
13. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1980): Klimageomorphologische Untersuchungen in der Dhaulagiri und Annapurna-Gruppe (Zentraler Himalaya). In: Tagungsbericht und wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen des 42. Deutschen Geographentag Göttingen. Steiner, Wiesbaden, 244-247.
14. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1982): Was spricht für eine pleistozäne Inlandvereisung Hochtibets? Sitzungsberichte u. Mittl. d. Braunschweigischen Wissenschaft. Gesellsch. 6 (Sonderbd: Die Chinesisch/Deutsche Tibet-Expedition 1981, Braunschweig-Symposium vom 14.-16.04.1982), 68-77.
15. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1982): Der Dhaulagiri- und Annapurna-Himalaya. Ein Beitrag zur Geomorphologie extremer Hochgebirge. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Supplement 41 (Suppl. Bd.), Bd. I (Text): 1-229; Bd. II (Abb.): 1-183 und Geomorph. Karte 1:85 000.
16. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1983): A New Expedition in Tibet - a Contribution to Climatology and High Mountain Research. Universitas 25 (1), 59-63.
17. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1986): Former glacial stades in the mountain areas surrounding Tibet - In the Himalayas (27-29°N: Dhaulagiri-, Annapurna-, Cho Qyu-, Gyachung Kang-areas) in the south and in the Kuen Lun and Quilian Shan (34-38°N: Animachin, Kakitu) in the north. In: Nepal-Himalaya - Geo-Ecological Perspektives. (Eds: Joshi, S.C.; Haigh, M.J.; Pangtey, Y.P.S.; Joshi, D.R.; Dani, D.D.) Himalayan Research Group, 437-473.
18. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1987): The Problem of a Pleistocene Inland Glaciation of the Northeastern Qinghai-Xizang-Plateau. - Reports on the NE-Part of Quinghai-Xizang (Tibet)-Plateau by the Sino-German Scientific Expedition 1981. (Eds: Hövermann, J.; Wenjing, W.) Science Press, Beijing, 250-315.
19. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): Heutige und eiszeitliche Vergletscherung Hochtibets. Ergebnisse der Südtibet- und Mt.-Everest-Expedition 1984. Wissenschaftlicher Tonfilm, 43,5 min. Farbtonfilm Film D 1649, Produktion des Instituts für den wissenschaftlichen Film (IWF). Göttingen (German and English version).
20. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): Geomorphological Findings on the Build-up of Pleistocene Glaciation in Southern Tibet, and on the Problem of Inland Ice. Results of the Shisha Pangma and Mt. Everest Expedition 1984. GeoJournal 17 (4, Tibet and High-Asia, Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions I), 457-513.
21. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages - An Autocyclic Hypothesis. In: International Congress "The Neogene of Karakoram and Himalayas" March 21st - 23rd, 1988. Department of Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK; Abstract, 11. (23.03.1988).
22. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1990): New Data on the Pleistocene Glacial Cover of the Southern Border of Tibet: The Glaciation of the Kangchendzönga Massif (8585m, E-Himalaya). GeoJournal 20, 415-421.
23. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1991): Observations Supporting the Pleistocene Inland Glaciation of High Asia. GeoJournal 25 (2/3, Tibet and High Asia II, Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions), 133-233.
24. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1993): A Short Report of the Tibet Excursion 14-A, Part of the XIII INQUA Congress 1991 Beijing. GeoJournal 29 (4), 426-427.
25. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1994): Present and Pleistocene Glaciation on the North-Western Margin of Tibet between the Karakorum Main Ridge and the Tarim Basin Supporting the Evidence of a Pleistocene Inland Glaciation in Tibet. GeoJournal 33 (2/3, Tibet and High Asia III, Results of the Sino-German and Russian-German Joint Expeditions), 133-272.
26. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1997): New Findings concerning the Ice Age (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the East-Pamir, of the Nanga Parbat up to the Central Himalaya and of Tibet, as well as the Age of the Tibetan Inland Ice. GeoJournal 42 (2-3, Tibet and High Asia IV. Results of Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology, Paleo- Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene (Ice Age Research)), 87-257.
27. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1998): New Findings on the Inland Glaciation of Tibet from South and Central West Tibet with Evidences for its Importance as an Ice Age Trigger. Himalayan Geology 19 (2, The role of the Tibetan Plateau in forcing global climatic changes, Ed: Tandon, O.P.), 3-22.
28. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1998): The Ice Age Glaciation of East-Pamir (36°40'-39°10'N/74°40'-76°10'E). In: Karakorum - Hindukush - Himalaya: Dynamics of Change. Culture Area Karakorum, Scientific Studies 4/1. (Ed: Stellrecht, I.) Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Köln, 29-47.
29. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2002): Outlet glaciers of the Pleistocene (LGM) south Tibetan ice sheet between Cho Oyu and Shisha Pangma as potential sources of former mega-floods. In: Flood and Megaflood Processes and Deposits: Recent and Ancient Examples. Special Publication of the International Association of Sedimentologists (IAS). Vol. 32. (Eds: Martini, P.; Baker, V.R.; Garzón, G.) Blackwell Science, Oxford, 291-302.
30. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2004): Past glacier (Würmian) ice thickness in the Karakoram and on the Deosai Plateau in the catchment area of the Indus river. E&G Quaternary Science Journal (Eiszeitalter u. Gegenwart) 54, 95-123.
31. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2005): Glacial geomorphology and ice ages in Tibet and surrounding mountains. The Island Arc 14 (4), 346-367, Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd.
32. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2005): The maximum Ice Age (Würmian, Last Ice Age, LGM) glaciation of the Himalaya- a glaciogeomorphological investigation of glacier trim-lines, ice thicknesses and lowest former ice margin positions in the Mt. Everest-Makalu-Cho Oyu massifs (Khumbu and Khumbakarna Himal) including informations on late-glacial, neoglacial and historical glacier stages, their snow-line depressions and ages. GeoJournal 62 No.3-4 (Tibet and High Asia VII: Glaciogeomorphology and Former Glaciation in the Himalaya and Karakorum), 191-650.
33. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2007): Critical Approach to the Methods of Glacier Reconstruction in High Asia (Qinghai-Xizang Tibet) Plateau, West Sichuan Plateau, Himalaya, Karakorum, Pamir, Kuenlun, Tienshan) and discussion of the probability of a Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) inland ice. Journal of Mountain Science Vol.4 No.2, 91-123.
34. ^ Matthias Kuhle(2007(erschienen 2008)): The Pleistocene Glaciation (LGP and pre-LGP, pre-LGM) of SE-Iranian Mountains exemplified by the Kuh-i-Jupar, Kuh-i-Lalezar and Kuh-i-Hezar Massifs in the Zagros. Polarforschung 77 (2-3), 71-88 (Erratum/ Clarification Figur 15 betreffend: Vol. 78 (1-2), 83, 2008 [erschienen 2009]).
35. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2008): Correspondence to-online-edition (doi.10.1016/jj.quascirev.2007.09.015 Elsevier) of Quaternary Science Reviews (QSR) article "Quaternary glacier history of the Central Karakorum" by Yeong Bae Seong et al. In: Quaternary Science Reviews, Volume 27, S. 1655-1656.
36. ^ Kuhle, M.; Herterich, K.; Calov, R. (1989): On the Ice Age Glaciation of the Tibetan Highlands and its Transformation into a 3-D Model. GeoJournal 19 (2), 201-206.
37. ^ Grosswald, M.G.; Kuhle, M. (1994): Impact of Glaciations on Lake Baikal. In: International Project on Paleolimnology and Late Cenozoic Climate No. 8. (Eds: Shoji Horie; Kazuhiro Toyoda (IPPCCE)) Universitätsverlag Wagner, Innsbruck, 48-60.
38. ^ Kuhle, M.; Schroeder, N. (2000): New Investigations and Results on the Maximum glaciation of the Kirgisen Shan and Tian Shan Plateau between Kokshaal Tau and Terskey Alatau. In: Pamir and Tian Shan. Contribution of the Quaternary History. International Workshop at the University of Bayreuth. Abstracts. (Ed: Zech, W.) University Bayreuth, Bayreuth, 8.
39. ^ Kuhle, M., Kuhle, S. (2010): Review on Dating methods: Numerical Dating in the Quaternary of High Asia. In: Journal of Mountain Science (2010) 7: 105-122
40. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1985): Glaciation Research in the Himalayas: A New Ice Age Theory. Universitas 27 (4), 281-294.
41. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1985): Ein subtropisches Inlandeis als Eiszeitauslöser. Südtibet- und Mt. Everest-Expedition 1984. Georgia Augusta, Nachrichten aus der Universität Göttingen 42, 35-51.
42. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1986): New Research in High Asia, Tibet and the Himalayas (The International Symposium on Tibet and High Asia, October 8.-11. 1985 in Göttingen). GeoJournal 12 (3), 341-343.
43. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1986): Die Vergletscherung Tibets und die Entstehung von Eiszeiten. Spektrum der Wissenschaften; Scientific American 9/86, 42-54.
44. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1987): The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and its Impact on the Global Climate. In: XII International Congress INQUA 1987 Ottawa, July 31 - August 9, 1987, Canada. Programme with Abstracts. INQUA, Ottawa, 204.
45. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1987): Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene. GeoJournal 14 (4), 393-421.
46. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1987): Die Wiege der Eiszeit. Geo 1987 (2), 80-94.
47. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): Eine reliefspezifische Eiszeittheorie. Nachweis einer tibetischen Inlandvereisung und ihrer energetischen Konsequenzen. Die Geowissenschaften 6 (5), 142-150.
48. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): Die eiszeitliche Vergletscherung W-Tibets zwischen Karakorum und Tarim-Becken und ihr Einfluβ auf die globale Energiebilanz. Geographische Zeitschrift 76 (3), 135-148.
49. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): Zur Auslöserrolle Tibets bei der Entstehung von Eiszeiten. Spektrum der Wissenschaften; Scientific American 1/88, 16-20.
50. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): Subtropical Mountain- and Highland-Glaciation as Ice Age Triggers and the Waning of the Glacial Periods in the Pleistocene. Chinese Translation Bulletin of Glaciology and Geocryology 5 (4), 1-17. (in Chinese language).
51. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1988): The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages- An Autocycle Hypothesis. GeoJournal 17 (4, Tibet and High-Asia. Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions I), 581-596.
52. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1989): Die Inlandvereisung Tibets als Basis einer in der Globalstrahlungsgeometrie fuβenden, reliefspezifischen Eiszeittheorie. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 133 (4), 265-285.
53. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1989): The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages - an Autocycle Hypothesis. In: The Late Cenozoic Ice Age Symposium organised by The Royal Society of Edinburgh also sponsored by The Quaternary Research Association; 3.-5. July 1989, Edinburgh. Abstract: 8.
54. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1990): La glaciation del Tibet y sus reperercusiones globales para el clima. Universitas 32, 71-85.
55. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1998): Reconstruction of the 2.4 Million qkm Late Pleistocene Ice Sheet on the Tibetan Plateau and its Impact on the Global Climate. Quaternary International 45/46, 71-108 (Erratum: Vol. 47/48:173-182 (1998) included).
56. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1999): The Uplift of Tibet above the Snowline and its Complete Glaciation as Trigger of the Quaternary Ice Ages - A Hypothesis for the Ice Age Development. Abstract. Geological Society of America (GSA) Publications 31, 141.
57. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2002): A relief-specific model of the ice age on the basis of uplift-controlled glacier areas in Tibet and the corresponding albedo increase as well as their positive climatological feedback by means of the global radiation geometry. Climate Research 20, 1-7
58. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2011): Ice Age Development Theory. In: Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers. Eds: V. P. Singh, P. Singh, U. K. Haritashya, 576-581, Springer.
59. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2011): Last Glacial Maximum Glaciation (LGM/LGP) in High Asia (Tibet and surrounding Mountains). In: Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers. Eds: V. P. Singh, P. Singh, U. K. Haritashya, 697-702, Springer.
60. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2011): Reconstruction of the last glaciations in the whole of Asia. In: Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers. Eds: V. P. Singh, P. Singh, U. K. Haritashya, 924-932, Springer.
61. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2001): The Tibetan Ice Sheet; its Impact on the Palaeomonsoon and Relation to the Earth's Oribital Variations. Polarforschung 71 (1/2), 1-13.
62. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1991): New Results on the Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and its impact in Glacioisostatic Movement of the Plateau. Bulletin of the INQUA- Neotectonics-Commission 14, 87.
63. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1993): Eine Autozyklentheorie zur Entstehung und Abfolge der quartären Kalt- und Warmzeiten auf der Grundlage epirogener und glazialisostatischer Bewegungsinterferenzen im Bereich des tibetischen Hochlandes. Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 137 (3), 133-152.
64. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1995): Glacial Isostatic Uplift of Tibet as a Consequence of a Former Ice Sheet. GeoJournal 37 (4), 431-449.
65. ^ Matthias Kuhle (1999): Reconstruction of an approximately complete Quaternary Tibetan Inland Glaciation between the Mt. Everest- and Cho Oyu Massifs and the Aksai Chin. - A new glaciogeomorphological southeast-northwest diagonal profile through Tibet and its consequences for the glacial isostasy and Ice Age cycle. GeoJournal 47, (1-2) Tibet and High Asia V. Results of Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology, Paleo-Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene), 3-276.
66. ^ Wang, Hansheng (2001): Effects of glacial isostatic adjustment since the late Pleistocene on the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. Geophys. J. Int. (2001) 144, 448-458.
67. ^ Derbyshire, E., Shi, Y.F., Li, J.J., Zheng, B.X., Li, S.J., Wang, J.T. (1991): Quaternary glaciation of Tibet: the geological evidence. Quaternary Science Reviews, 10, 485-510.
68. ^ Shi, Y.F., Zheng, B.X., Li, S.J. (1992): Last glaciation and maximum glaciation in the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau: A controversy to M. Kuhle's ice sheet hypothesis. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Supplementband, 84, 19-35.
69. ^ Rutter, N. (1995): Problematic ice sheets. Quaternary International, 28, 19-37.
70. ^ Zheng, B.X., Rutter, N. (1998): On the problem of Quaternary glaciations, and the extent and patterns of Pleistocene ice cover in the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) plateau. Quaternary International, 45/46, 109-122.
71. ^ Zhou, S.Z., Li, J.J., Zhang, S.Q., Zhao, J.D., Cui, J.X. (2004): Quaternary glaciations in China. In Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology, Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds). Elsevier: Amsterdam; 105-113.
72. ^ Lehmkuhl, F., Owen, L.A. (2005): Late Quaternary glaciation of Tibet and the bordering mountains: a review. Boreas, 34, 87-100.
73. ^ Owen, L.A., Finkel, R.C., Barnard, P.L., Ma, H.Z., Asahi, K., Caffee, M.W., Derbyshire, E. (2005): Climatic and topographic controls on the style and timing of Late Quaternary glaciation throughout Tibet and the Himalaya defined by 10Be cosmogenic radionuclide surface exposure dating. Quaternary Science Reviews, 24, 1391-1411.
74. ^ Seong, Y.B., Owen, L.A., Bishop, M.P., Bush, A., Clendon, P., Copland, L., Finkel, R., Kamp, U., Shroder, J.F. (2007): Quaternary glacial history of the central Karakoram. Quaternary Science Reviews, 26, 3384-3405.
75. ^ Owen, L.A., Caffee, M.W., Finkel, R.C., Seong, Y.B., (2008): Quaternary glaciation of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. Journal of Quaternary Science, 23, 513-531.
76. ^ Heyman, J., Stroeven, A.P., Alexanderson, H., Hättestrand, C., Harbor, J., Li, Y.K., Caffee, M.W., Zhou, L.P., Veres, D., Liu, F., Machiedo, M., (2009): Palaeoglaciation of Bayan Har Shan, northeastern Tibetan Plateau: glacial geology indicates maximum extents limited to ice cap and ice field scales. Journal of Quaternary Science, 24, 710-727.
77. ^ Matthias Kuhle (2004): The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) ice cover in High and Central Asia. Development in Quaternary Science 2c (Quaternary Glaciation - Extent and Chronology, Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, Eds: Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.), 175-199.

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

References

• Hopkirk, Peter. Trespassers on the Roof of the World: The Secret Exploration of Tibet (1983) J. P. Tarcher. ISBN 0874772575

External links

• online collection of maps of Tibet maintained by The Australian National University
• General Survey (Tibet)
• Geography of Tibet
• The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages – An Autocycle Hypothesis