Brackish water

Brackish water (less commonly brack water) is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. The word comes from the Middle Dutch root "brak," meaning "salty." Certain human activities can produce brackish water, in particular certain civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish water pools for freshwater prawn farming. Brackish water is also the primary waste product of the salinity gradient power process. Because brackish water is hostile to the growth of most terrestrial plant species, without appropriate management it is damaging to the environment (see article on shrimp farms).

Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 to 30 grams of salt per litre—more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or ‰). Thus, "brackish" covers a range of salinity regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time.

Brackish water habitats

Estuaries

Brackish is a mixture of sea water and fresh water, and an estuary is a body of water where fresh and salt water mix. The most extensive brackish water habitats worldwide are estuaries, where a river meets the sea.

The River Thames flowing through London is a classic river estuary. The town of Teddington a few miles west of London marks the limit of the tidal part of the Thames, although it is still a freshwater river about as far east as Battersea insofar as the average salinity is very low and the fish fauna consists predominantly of freshwater species such as roach, dace, carp, perch, and pike. The Thames Estuary becomes truly brackish between Battersea and Gravesend, and the diversity of freshwater fish species present is smaller, primarily roach and dace, euryhaline marine species such as flounder, European seabass, mullet, and smelt become much more common. Further east, the salinity increases and the freshwater fish species are completely replaced by euryhaline marine ones, until the river reaches Gravesend, at which point conditions become fully marine and the fish fauna resembles that of the adjacent North Sea and includes both euryhaline and stenohaline marine species. A similar pattern of replacement can be observed with the aquatic plants and invertebrates living in the river [http://www.the-river-thames.co.uk/thames.htm] , [http://www.the-river-thames.co.uk/wildlife.htm] .

This type of ecological succession from a freshwater to marine ecosystem is typical of river estuaries. River estuaries form important staging points during the migration of anadromous and catadromus fish species, such as salmon and eels, giving them time to form social groups and to adjust to the changes in salinity. Salmon are anadromous, meaning they live in the sea but ascend rivers to spawn; eels are catadromous, living in rivers and streams, but returning to the sea to breed. Besides the species that migrate through estuaries, there are many other fish that use them as "nursery grounds" for spawning or as places young fish can feed and grow before moving elsewhere. Herring and plaice are two commercially important species that use the Thames Estuary for this purpose.

Estuaries are also commonly used as fishing grounds, and as places for fish farming or ranching. For example, Atlantic salmon farms are often located in estuaries, although this has caused controversy, because in doing so, fish farmers expose migrating wild fish to large numbers of external parasites such as sea lice that escape from the pens the farmed fish are kept in [http://www.saveourseatrout.com/] .

Mangroves

Another important brackish water habitat is the mangrove swamp or mangal. Many, though not all, mangrove swamps fringe estuaries and lagoons where the salinity changes with each tide. Among the most specialised residents of mangrove forests are mudskippers, fish that forage for food on land, and archer fish, perch-like fish that "spit" at insects and other small animals living in the trees, knocking them into the water where they can be eaten. Like estuaries, mangrove swamps are extremely important breeding grounds for many fish, with species such as snappers, halfbeaks, and tarpon spawning or maturing among them. Besides fish, numerous other animals use mangroves, including such specialists as the American crocodile, proboscis monkey, diamondback terrapin, and the Crab-eating frog, "Fejervarya cancrivora formerly Rana cancrivora". Although often plagued with mosquitoes and other insects that make them unpleasant places to visit, mangrove swamps are very important buffer zones between land and sea, and are a natural defense against hurricane and tsunami damage in particular [http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=1823&language=1] .

Brackish seas and lakes

Some seas and lakes are brackish. The Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea. Originally the confluence of two major river systems prior to the Pleistocene, since that it has been flooded by the North Sea but still receives so much freshwater from the adjacent lands that the water is brackish. Because the salt water coming in from the sea is more dense than freshwater, the water in the Baltic is stratified, with salt water at the bottom and freshwater at the top. Limited mixing occurs because of the lack of tides and storms, with the result that the fish fauna at the surface is freshwater in composition while that lower down is more marine. Cod are an example of a species only found in deep water in the Baltic, while pike are confined to the less saline surface waters [http://www.internat.naturvardsverket.se/index.php3?main=/documents/nature/nacatego/marine/marine.htm] .

The Caspian Sea is the world's largest lake and contains brackish water with a salinity about one-third that of normal seawater. The Caspian is famous for its peculiar animal fauna, including one of the few non-marine seals (the Caspian seal) and the great sturgeons, a major source of caviar.

In the Black sea the surface water is brackish with an average salinity of about 18 parts per thousand compared to 30 to 40 for the oceans. The deep, anoxic water of Black sea originates from warm, salty water of the Mediterranean

Notable brackish bodies of water (by type, in alphabetical order)

Brackish seas
*Baltic Sea (the world’s largest pool of brackish water)
*Black Sea
*Caspian Sea (world’s largest lake)

Brackish water lakes
*Lake Charles in Lake Charles, Louisiana, U.S.
*Chilka Lake, in Orissa state, India
*Lake Maracaibo, in Zulia state, Venezuela
*Lake Monroe in Florida, U.S.
*Pangong Tso in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir state, India
*Lake Van

Coastal lagoons, marshes, and deltas
*The Burgas Lakes near the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast
*The Fleet lagoon, Dorset, England
*Kaliveli Lake, near Pondichery, India
*Kerala Backwaters, Series of lagoons and lakes in Kerala
*Lagos Lagoon in Lagos, Nigeria
*Lake Pontchartrain, north of New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.
*Pulicat Lake, north of Chennai, India
*The Rann of Kutch, on the border of India and Pakistan
*Parts of the Rhône Delta, France: An area known as the Camargue
*Widewater, and land-locked lagoon near Lancing, England

Estuaries
*Amazon River, empties so much freshwater into the Atlantic Ocean that it reduces the salinity of the sea for hundreds of miles
*Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland, U.S.
*Delaware Bay, an extension of the Delaware River in New Jersey and Delaware, USA
*Hampton Roads, Virginia, USA
*Lower Hudson River, in New York and New Jersey, U.S.
*East River, New York, USA
*Lingding Yang, Guangdong, the People's Republic of China
*Port Royal Sound part of Beaufort County, South Carolina, USA [http://www.lowcountryestuarium.org]
*Saint Lawrence and Saguenay Rivers, the part downstream from Québec and Saguenay respectively
*San Francisco Bay and San Pablo Bay adjacent to San Francisco in California, U.S.
*The Thames Estuary in South East England

Further reading

* [http://www.springerlink.com/content/p2q719335u606034/fulltext.pdf Moustakas, A. & I. Karakassis. How diverse is aquatic biodiversity research?, Aquatic Ecology, 39, 367-375]

ee also

*Biosalinity
*Brackish water aquarium
*Desalination
*Permian Sea
*Slough