Russians in Estonia

The beginning of continuous Russian settlement in what is now Estonia dates back to the late 17th century when several thousand Russian Old Believers, escaping religious persecution in Russia, settled in areas then controlled by Sweden near the western coast of Lake Peipus. The history of intermittent presence of Early East Slavs, or "proto-Russians", in Estonia is longer by several centuries.

First contacts and settlements

As early as the 6th century AD, an East Slavic tribe, the Krivichs, had settled in what is now eastern Latvia, an area which over the following centuries was in close contact with adjacent areas of south-eastern Estonia, both in terms of mutual military raids, as well as trade and migration. [ Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974 ] . Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kievan Rus successfully raided Tartu in 1030, burning down the Estonian stronghold [http://www.visittartu.com/11387 A short overview of the history of Tartu] ] . The Russian foothold Yuryev built on its ashes survived until 1061, when Kievan Rus were driven out by Estonians, making most Early East Slavic settlements at the time in Estonia intermittent only and not continuous [ [http://books.google.com/books?id=XKWRct15XfkC&pg=PA420&ots=Qq2bYV4jQc&dq=tartu+yaroslav+1061&sig=7kcb1DXwYHNPhjiWihbqOxKeQ3o Miljan, Toivo. Historical Dictionary of Estonia] ] . Outside of south-east Estonia archeologists unearthed a mediaeval Russian settlement in Kuremäe (Ida-Viru County). Russian Orthodox community in the area built a church in the 16th century and later Pühtitsa Convent was created on its site. [ http://www.orthodox.ee/indexeng.php?d=parishes/convent Pühtitsa [Pyhtitsa] Dormition Convent ] Russian cultural influence had its mark on Estonian language, with a number of words such as "turg" (trade) and "rist" (cross) adopted from East Slavic [ Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974 ] .

The Estonian Crusade started in the Baltics by the Teutonic knights was resisted by all the natives of the region Slavs as well as Estonians. [ Kahk J., Palamets H., Vahtre S. "Estee NVS Ajaloost Lisamaterjali VII-VIII Klassi NVS Liidu Ajaloo Kursuse Juurde 7. Trukk" Tallin: "Valgus", 1974 ] . In 1217 allied Russian-Estonian army defended fort Otepää from German knights. Russian prince Vyachko died in 1224 with all his druzhina defending fortress Tharbatu (modern Tartu) together with his Estonian allies against Livonian Order led by Albert of Riga. Russians were gradually driven out of Estonia [ [http://www.xenophon-mil.org/rushistory/rulers/chron13cen.htm Chronology of 13th century] ] . The conquest of what is now Estonia and Latvia by Denmark and the German crusaders in the beginning of the 13th century greatly reduced Slavic and Orthodox Christian influence in the region. Russian Orthodox Saint Isidore of Tartu was drowned in 1472 in the ice holes of the Emajõgi river for his refusal to adopt Roman Catholicism together with 72 Orthodox Christians. [ [http://www.orthodox.ee/indexeng.php?d=history/history#1 Historical background of Orthodoxy in Estonia] ] . Nonetheless, Orthodox churches and small communities of Russian merchants and craftsmen came into being in the towns of medieval Livonia (i.e., Estonia and Latvia) as did close trade links with Russian Novgorod, Pskov and Polotsk principalities. In 1481, Ivan III of Russia laid siege to the castle Viljandi and briefly captured several other towns in eastern Livonia in response to a Livonian attack on north-west Russia. Between 1558 and 1582, Ivan the Terrible captured much of mainland Estonia, in the midst of the Livonian War, but eventually the Russians were driven out by Polish and Swedish armies. Tsar Alexis I of Russia once again captured towns in eastern Livonia, including Tartu and Vasknarva in modern Estonia between 1656 and 1661, but had to yield his Livonian and Ingrian conquests to Sweden. In the late 17th century several thousand Russian Old Believers, escaping religious persecution in Russia, settled in areas of Estonia (then controlled by Sweden) near the western coast of Lake Peipus.

econd wave of settlement

The second period of influx of Russians followed the Imperial Russian conquest of the northern Baltic region, including Estonia, from Sweden in 1700–1721. Under Russian rule, power in the region remained primarily in the hands of the Baltic German nobility, but a limited number of administrative jobs was gradually taken over by Russians, who settled in Reval (Tallinn) and other major towns. However, a relatively larger number of ethnic Russian workers settled in Tallinn and Narva during the period of rapid industrial development in the end of 19th century and the beginning of 20th century. After the First World War, the share of ethnic Russians in the population of independent Estonia was about 10%, of which about half were indigenous Russians living in the areas in and around Pechory and Izborsk which were added to Estonian territory according to the 1920 Estonian-Soviet Peace Treaty of Tartu, but were transferred to the Russian SFSR by the Soviet authorities in 1945.

Third influx

In 1939 ethnic Russians comprised 8% of the population. Most of the present-day Russians in Estonia are migrants from the Soviet era and their descendants. Following the terms of the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union occupied and annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in 1940. Soviet authorities carried out repressions against many prominent ethnic Russians activists in Estonia and Russian White emigres. Many Russians in Estonia were arrested and executed by different Soviet War Tribunals in 1940-1941. [ http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/pdf/appendixes/312-318.pdf Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity.] After Germany attacked the Soviet Union in 1941, the three countries quickly fell under German control. Many Russians, especially Communist party members who had arrived in the area with the initial annexation, retreated to Russia; those who fell into German hands were treated harshly, many were executed.

After the war, Stalin initiated population transfer in the Soviet Union. Various Soviet ethnic groups that were relocated to Baltic states were mostly working class who settled in major urban areas, as well as military personnel stationed in the region in significant numbersFact|date=October 2007 due to the border location of the Baltic States within the Soviet Union. Many military retirees chose to stay in the region, which featured higher living standards compared to other parts of Soviet Union. By the 1980s, ethnic Russians made up a third of the population in Estonia.

During the Singing Revolution a large fraction of Russian-speaking Soviet immigrants who were organised in Intermovement actively opposed Estonia regaining its independence.

Recent situation

In Estonia, most Russians live in Tallinn and the major northeastern cities of Narva and Kohtla-Järve. The rural areas are populated almost entirely by ethnic Estonians, except for some areas in eastern Estonia near Lake Peipus which have a long history of settlement by Russians, including the Old Believers' communities.

Citizenship

After regaining independence in 1991 the restored Republic of Estonia recognised citizenship of everybody who was a citizen prior to the Soviet occupation of 1940 or descended from such a citizen (including the long-term Russian settlers from earlier influxes, such as those around [http://www.fallingrain.com/world/EN/5/Mustvee.html Mustvee] near Lake Peipus), but did not grant any new citizenships automatically. This affected people who had arrived in the country after 1940, the majority of whom were ethnic Russians. Knowledge of Estonian language and history were set as conditions for naturalization. [ [http://www.legislationline.org/legislation.php?tid=11&lid=2296&less=false Citizenship Act of Estonia] (English translation)]

According to the Estonian Statistical OfficeFact|date=January 2008, ethnic Russians comprised 25.7% of the population in 2006. Of that 25.7%, approximately 27% hold Russian citizenship, 35% hold Estonian citizenship, and 35% continue to have undefined citizenship.

Under Estonian law, residents without citizenship may not vote in elections of Riigikogu (the national parliament) or European Parliament elections, but are eligible to vote in local (municipal) elections.

Language requirements

The perceived difficulty of the initial language tests necessary for naturalisation became a point of international contention, as the government of Russian Federation, the European UnionFact|date=July 2007, and a number of human rights organizations objected on the grounds that they made it hard for many Russians who had not learned Estonian to gain Estonian citizenship in the short term. As a result, the tests were somewhat altered and the number of stateless persons has steadily decreased. According to Estonian officials, in 1992, 32% of residents lacked any form of citizenship. In July 2007, the Population Registry of the Estonian Ministry of the Interior reported that 8.5% of Estonia's residents have undefined citizenship and 7.8% have foreign citizenship [ [http://www.vm.ee/estonia/kat_399/4518.html/ Estonia: Citizenship] ] .

Estonia does not tax income spent on education (including lessons of Estonian language) given by accredited schools. Furthermore, the laws provide for reimbursement of money spent on Estonian language lessons upon passing the language test to be taken for naturalisation. The rate of reimbursement is set by an executive order; as of May 2007, it is 100%.

Alternatives

Russia being a successor state to the Soviet Union, all former USSR citizens qualified for natural-born citizenship of Russian Federation, available upon mere request, as provided by the law “On the RSFSR Citizenship” in force up to end of 2000. [ [http://www.eurasianhome.org/doc/Abstract_final.pdf The Policy of Immigration and Naturalization in Russia: Present State and Prospects] , by Sergei Gradirovsky et al]

Discrimination criticism

Some Russians continue to allege job, salary and housing discrimination on account of Estonian-language requirements. Russian government officials and parliamentarians echo these charges in a variety of forums. Both the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) mission in Estonia and the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities have declared that they cannot find a pattern of human rights violations or abuses in Estonia. [http://www.axt.org.uk/antisem/archive/archive1/estonia/index.htm] However, Amnesty International has claimed that Russian-speaking linguistic minority living in Estonia often find themselves de facto excluded from the labour market and educational system. The report expressed the view that the current policies fail to constitute a coherent framework within which these rights can be guaranteed for such persons. Amnesty International cites as evidence the high unemployment rate — 12.9% in 2005 — among people belonging to Russian-speaking linguistic minority, in contrast to only 5.3% among ethnic Estonians during the same period. [Amnesty International: [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGEUR510022006 Estonia Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end] ] On the other hand, ethnic Estonians without good command of Russian and English language also have limited job opportunities.Fact|date=January 2008

The European Centre for Minority Issues has also examined Estonia's treatment of its Russophone minority. In its conclusion, the centre notes that while all international organisations agree that no forms of systematic discrimination towards the Russian-speaking population can be observed and praises the efforts made thus far in amendments to laws on education, language and the status of non-citizens, there nevertheless remains the issue of the large number of such non-citizens. [European Centre for Minority Issues: [http://www.ecmi.de/download/working_paper_20.pdf Russian-speaking minorities in Estonia and Latvia: problems of integration at the threshold of the European Union] by Peter van Elsuwege] ] The think-tank Development and Transition, which is sponsored by the United Nations, has argued that Latvia and Estonia employ a "sophisticated and extensive policy regime of discrimination" against their respective Russophone parts of the population. [http://www.developmentandtransition.net/index.cfm?module=ActiveWeb&page=WebPage&DocumentID=586] An obscure initiative group established in the aftermath of the Bronze Soldier [ [http://rus.postimees.ee/140607/glavnaja/estonija/17918.php] (russian)] calling itself the "House of Representatives of Ethnic Minorities of Estonia" (a non-governmental organization allegedly representing hundreds of groups and societies of ethnical minorities in Estonia [http://www.dzd.ee/?SID=f3a1f1129f075b16345d2c5eb47c2d73&n=76&a=1395&anumber=76 Нацменьшинства объединились (Russian)] ] [http://rus.postimees.ee/140607/glavnaja/estonija/17918.php] (russian)] ) issued a list of theses describing its view of the history of Estonia's policy towards ethnic minorities as having four distinct phases [http://rus.delfi.ee/projects/opinion/article.php?id=17971888 Нацменьшинства — о национальной политике ЭР (in Russian)] ] [http://www.moles.ee/08/Jan/22/2-1.php Голос нацменьшинств (in Russian)] ] :

* In 1991-1995 policy had been geared toward re-migration of non-Estonians out of Estonia. This had been accompanied by splitting of society into citizens and residents denied citizenship, which amounted to stripping of basic human rights from hundreds of thousands of resident. The essence of this policy had been formulated in slogans "Plats рuhtaks!" ("Clear the Square!"), "Eеstimaa eestlaste jaoks!"("Estonia for Estonians!"). The legal status of ethnic minority had been denied to non-citizens (up to 30% of the population, mostly Russians).

* In 1996-1999 policy had been changed as result of pressure from EU and NATO. Among conditions of Estonia's admittance were requirements to switch from pushing minorities out of Estonia to integration. Estonian Parliament adopted laws protecting minority rights. However non-citizens were again explicitly excluded from definition of ethnic minority.

* In 2000-2007 policy concentrated on integration of minorities in ethnic Estonian-dominated society, created in 1990s. House of Representatives came to a conclusion that this policy effectively amounted to forced assimilation of minorities, when fines and employment restrictions based on lack of command of the Estonian language became commonplace.

* Bronze Night marked start of 4th stage, which is described by House of Representatives as "crisis of ethnic policy".

Notable Russians from Estonia

Noteworthy modern Russians who at some point lived in Estonia include:
*Patriarch Alexius II of the Russian Orthodox Church, born Aleksei Ridiger in Tallinn
*Sergei Dovlatov lived in Tallinn.
*Mikhail Veller, writer, lives in Tallinn.
*Igor Severyanin (Igor Lotaryov), poet; lived, married, died and was buried in Estonia.
*Yuri Lotman lived in Tartu.
*Valery Karpin, former football player of Russian national football team, was born in Narva. Since 2003 he holds Estonian citizenship.

ee also

* Baltic Russians
* Demographics of Estonia
* Intermovement

References

External links

* [http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/021/0058/jmmd0210058.pdf The Russian Diaspora in Latvia and Estonia: Predicting Language Outcomes]
* [http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/europe-and-central-asia/baltic-states/estonia] Amnesty International report on Estonia, 2007.
* [http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engeur510022006 Linguistic minorities in Estonia: Discrimination must end] " - Amnesty International report on Estonia, 7 December 2006.
* " [http://edwardlucas.blogspot.com/2006/12/estonia-and-amnesty.html An excess of conscience - Estonia is right and Amnesty is wrong] " - "The Economist", editorial by Edward Lucas, condemning Amnesty International, December 14, 2006
* Vetik, Raivo (1993). [http://www.jstor.org/view/00223433/ap020118/02a00030/0 Ethnic conflict and accommodation in post-communist Estonia] . "Journal of Peace Research" 30.3, 271-280.
* Andersen, Erik André (1997). [http://www.jstor.org/view/09668136/ap010054/01a00060/0 The Legal Status of Russians in Estonian Privatisation Legislation 1989-1995] . "Europe-Asia Studies" 49.2, 303-316.
* Park, Andrus (1994). [http://www.jstor.org/view/09668136/ap010016/01a00040/0 Ethnicity and Independence: The Case of Estonia in Comparative Perspective] . "Europe-Asia Studies" 46.1, 69-87.
* Vares, Peeter and Olga Zhurayi (1998). Estonia and Russia, Estonians and Russians: A Dialogue. 2nd ed. Tallinn: Olof Palme International Center.
* Lauristin, Marju & Mati Heidmets (eds.) "The Challenge of the Russian Minority: Emerging Multicultural Democracy in Estonia". Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus, 2002.