Ziya Gökalp

Ziya Gökalp (born Mehmed Ziya; March 23 1876, Diyarbakır—October 25 1924, İstanbul) was a sociologist, writer, and poet. In 1908, after a Young Turk revolution, he adopted the pen name Gökalp ("sky hero"), which he retained for the rest of his life. As a sociologist, Ziya Gökalp was influential in the overhaul of religious perceptions and evolving of Turkish nationalism.

Gökalp's work has proved particularly influential in shaping reforms of Kemal Atatürk; his influence figured prominently in the development of Kemalism, and its legacy in the modern Republic of Turkey. [Parla, Taha. "The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gokalp". 1980, page 7.] Influenced by contemporary European thought, Gökalp rejected Ottomanism and Islamism in favor of Turkish nationalism.Moaddel, Mansoor. "Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism". 2005, page 157.] He advocated a Turkification of the Ottoman Empire, by imposing the Turkish language and culture onto all the citizenry. His thought, which popularized Pan-Turkism and Turanism, has been described as a "cult of nationalism and modernization" [Erickson, Edward J. "Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War". Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn., 2001, p. 97] .His nationalist ideals espoused a de-identification with Ottoman Turkey's Muslim neighbors, in lieu of a supernational Turkish (or pan-Turkic) identity with "a territorial Northeast-orientation [to] Turkish speaking peoples".Kinloch, Graham Charles and Mohan, Raj P. "Genocide: Approaches, Case Studies, and Responses". 2005, page 50.]

Early life

Mehmed Ziya was born in Diyarbakır on March 23, 1876. Diyarbakır was a "cultural frontier", having been ruled by Arabs and Persians until the 16th century, and featuring "conflicting national traditions" among the local populations of Turks, Kurds, and Armenians.Parla, Taha. "The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gokalp". 1980, page 10.] This cultural environment has often been suggested to have informed his sense of national identity; later in his life, when political detractors suggested that he was of Kurdish extraction, Gokalp responded that while he was certain of patrilineal Turkish racial heritage, this was insignificant: "I learned through my sociological studies that nationality is based solely on upbringing." Many historians nonetheless characterize him as being of Kurdish origin.Kaya, Ibrahim. "Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience". 2004, page 61.]

After attending secondary school in Diyarbakır, he settled in Istanbul, in 1896. There, he attended veterinary school and became involved in underground revolutionary politics, for which he served ten months in prison.Parla, Taha. "The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gokalp". 1980, page 12.] He developed relationships with many figures of the revolutionary underground in this period, abandoned his veterinary studies, and became a member of the underground revolutionary group, the Society of Union and Progress. The revolutionary currents of Istanbul at the time were extremely varied; the unpopularity of the Abdul Hamid II regime had by this time awakened diverse revolutionary sentiment in Istanbul.

Career

Mehmed Ziya changed his name, initially as a pen name, to "Gökalp", meaning "Sky warrior" or "Blue warrior" in Old Turkish.

Gökalp's work, in the context of the decline of the Ottoman Empire, was instrumental in the development of Turkish national identity, which he himself referred to even then as "Turkishness". He believed that a nation must have a "shared consciousness" in order to survive, that "the individual becomes a genuine personality only as he becomes a genuine representative of his culture". He believed that a modern state must become homogeneous in terms of culture, religion, and national identity.Akcam, Taner. "A Shameful Act". 2006, page 88.] This conception of national identity was augmented by his belief in the primacy of Turkishness, as a unifying virtue. In a 1911 article, he suggested that "Turks are the 'supermen' imagined by the German philosopher Nietzsche".

His major sociological work was interested in differentiating "Avrupalılık" ("Europeanism", the mimicking of Western societies) and "Modernlik" ("Modernity", taking initiative); he was interested in Japan as a model in this, for what he perceived to be its having modernized without abandoning its innate cultural identity. Gökalp suggested that to subordinate "culture" (non-utilitarianism, altruism, public-spiritedness) to "civilization" (utilitarianism, egoism, individualism) was to doom a state to decline: "civilization destroyed societal solidarity and morality".Parla, Taha. "The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gokalp". 1980, page 31.]

Informed by his reading of Emile Durkheim, Gökalp concluded that Western liberalism, as a social system, was inferior to solidarism, because liberalism encouraged individualism, which in turn diminished the integrity of the state. Durkheim, whose work Gökalp himself translated into Turkish, perceived religion as a means of unifying a population socially, and even "religion as society's worship of itself".Yilmaz, Ihsan. "Muslim Laws, Politics And Society In Modern Nation States". 2005, page 101.] Durkheim's assertion that the life of the group was more important than the life of the individual, this was a concept readily adopted by Gökalp.

A well-known newspaper columnist and political figure, Gökalp was a primary ideologue of the Committee of Union and Progress. His views of "nation", and the ways in which they have informed the development of the modern Turkish state, have made for a controversial legacy. Many historians and sociologists have suggested that his brand of nationalism contributed to the Armenian Genocide.Chalk, Frank and Jonassohn, Kurt. "The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies". page 249] Hovannisian, Richard G. "The Armenian Genocide in Perspective". 1986, page 77.] His conception of nation was of a "social solidarity" that necessitated "cultural unity".Parla, Taha. "The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gokalp". 1980, page 36.] "Geographic nationalism", in which everyone living under one political system was a part of the nation, was unacceptable to Gökalp, who conceived of a nation as linguistically and culturally unified. Finally, merely to believe one was a part of a nation, this was not enough, either; one cannot choose to belong to the nation, in his view, as membership in the nation is involuntary. After WWI, he was arrested for his involvement in the Committee of Union and Progress, and briefly exiled from the country.

Poetic works

In addition to his sociological and political career, Gökalp was also a prolific poet. His poetic work served to compliment and popularize his sociological and nationalist views. In style and content, it revived a sense of pre-Islamic Turkish identity. The protagonist in his "Kızılelma", the "ideal woman",Karpat, Kemal H. "Ottoman Past and Today's Turkey". 2000, page 235.] suggests: "The people is like a garden, / we are supposed to be its gardeners! / First the bad shoots are to be cut / and then the scion is to be grafted." She is the teacher at "Yeni Hayat" ("New Life"), where Eastern and Western ideals meet and form a "new Turkish World".

His poetry departs from his more serious sociological works, though it too harnesses nationalist sentiment: "Run, take the standard and let it be planted once again in Plevna / Night and day, let the waters of the Danube run red with blood...." [Akcam, Taner. "A Shameful Act". 2006, page 117.] Perhaps his most famous poem was his 1911 "Turan", which served to compliment his Turanist intellectual output: "For the Turks, Fatherland means neither Turkey, nor Turkestan; Fatherland is a large and eternal country--Turan!"Landau, Jacob M. "Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation". page 37] During the First World War, his "Kızıl Destan" ("Red Epic") called for destroying Russia in the interest of pan-Turkism.

"The Principles of Turkism"

His 1923 "The Principles of Turkism", published just a year prior to his death, outlines the expansive nationalist identity he had long popularized in his teachings and poetry. The nationalism he espouses entails "a nation [that] is not a racial or ethnic or geographic or political or volitional group but one composed of individuals who share a common language, religion, morality, and aesthetics, that is to say, who have received the same education."Landau, Jacob M. "Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation". page 38]

He proceeds to lay out the three echelons of pan-Turkist identity that he envisions:
* the Turks in the Republic of Turkey, a nation according to cultural and other criteria;
* the Oghuz Turks, referring also to the Turkmens of Azerbayjan, Iran and Khwarizm who... essentially have one common culture which is the same as that of the Turks of Turkey--all these four forming Oghuzistan;
* more distant, Turkic-speaking peoples, such as the Yakuts, Kirghiz, Uzbeks, Kipchaks and Tatars, possessed of a traditional linguistic and ethnic unity, having affinity--but not identity--with the Turkish culture.

The second stage was "Oghuzism", and the final stage would be the "Turanism" that he and other nationalist poets had been promoting since before World War I. While this broad conception of "Turkishness", of pan-Turkism, often embraced what Gökalp perceived to be ethnic commonality, he did not disparage other races, as some of his pan-Turkist successors later did.Landau, Jacob M. "Pan-Turkism: From Irredentism to Cooperation". page 184]

Legacy

Gökalp has been characterized as "the father of Turkish nationalism",Melson, Robert. "Revolution and Genocide". 1996, page 164.] and even "the Grand Master of Turkism". His thought figured prominently in the political landscape of the Republic of Turkey, which emerged from the ruins of the Ottoman Empire around the time of his death. His influence resonated in diverse ways. For instance, his "Principles of Turkism" had contended that Ottoman classical music was Byzantine in origin; this led to the state briefly banning Ottoman classical music from the radio in the 1930s, because Turkish folk music alone "represented the genius of the nation". [Houston, Christopher. "Islam, Kurds and the Turkish Nation State". 2001, page 39.]

For popularizing pan-Turkism and Turanism, Gökalp has been viewed alternately as being racist and expansionist, and anti-racist and anti-expansionist.Parla, Taha. "The Social and Political Thought of Ziya Gokalp". 1980, page 126-7.] These opposite readings of his legacy are not easily divisible into proponents and detractors, as racist and fascist elements in Turkey (such as the "Nationalist Action Party") have appropriated his work to contend that he supported a physical realization of Turanism, rather than a mere ideological pan-Turkist kinship. Some readings of Gökalp contend, to the contrary, that his Turanism and pan-Turkism were linguistic and cultural models, ideals from which a post-Ottoman identity could be derived, rather than a militant call for the physical expansion of the Republic of Turkey.

For espousing a "homogeneous nation" and rejecting minority rights and minority identity, Gökalp has often been associated with the Armenian Genocide. Gökalp's writing has more recently figured in nationalist discourse in regards to Turkey's Kurdish minority. Turkish nationalist academics often cite Gökalp in contending "there is no such thing as the Kurdish people".Houston, Christopher. "Islam, Kurds and the Turkish Nation State". 2001, page 110.]

Although he often held quite different ideas, Arab nationalist Sati al-Husri was profoundly influenced by Gökalp.

Works

*"Principles of Turkism"
*"History of Turkish Civilization"
*"Kızılelma" (poems)
*"Turkism, Islamism and Modernism"
*"History of Kurdish Tribes" (Kürt Aşiretleri Hakkında Sosyolojik Tetkikler)

References

Further reading

* Taha Parla: "The social and political thought of Ziya Gökalp : 1876 - 1924". Leiden 1985
* Mihran Dabag: "Jungtürkische Visionen und der Völkermord an den Armeniern", in: Dabag / Platt: "Genozid und Moderne" (Band 1), Opladen 1998. ISBN 3-8100-1822-8
* Katy Schröder: "Die Türkei im Schatten des Nationalismus". Hamburg, 2003, ISBN 3-8311-4266-1, S. 50-54