Brumby

Infobox Horse
name= Brumby


image_caption=Brumbies in the Northern Territory, 2006
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country= Australia
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A brumby is a free-roaming feral horse in Australia. Although they are found in many areas around the country, the most well-known brumbies are found in the Australian Alps region in south-eastern Australia. Today, the majority of them live in the Northern Territory, with the second largest population in Queensland. There are more horses in the wild in Australia than any other country, outnumbering even the American Mustang. A herd of brumbies is known as a "mob" or a "band."

Brumbies are the descendants of escaped or lost horses, dating back, in some cases, to those belonging to the nation's early European settlers. These horses included the "Capers" that arrived from South Africa, Timor Ponies from Indonesia, British pony breeds, various British draft horse breeds and a significant number of Thoroughbreds and Arabians.

Today they live in many places, including some National Parks. Occasionally they are mustered and domesticated for use as working stock horses on farms or stations, but also as trail horses, show horses, Pony Club mounts and pleasure horses. These horses are the subject of some controversy, sometimes regarded as a pest and threat to native ecosystems, but valued by others as part of Australia's heritage, with supporters who work to prevent inhumane treatment or extermination. Several voluntary organisations also work to rehome captured Brumbies. [ [http://www.guyfawkesheritagehorse.com.au Guy Fawkes Heritage Horse] ]

History

Origin of the term

The common usage of the word brumby to represent wild horses in Australia may have come about from one or more of the following possibilities: [ [http://www.brumbywatchaustralia.com/Brumby_facts.htm Brumby Watch Australia's "Brumby Facts" page] ]
# Horses left behind by Sergeant James Brumby from his property at Mulgrave Place in New South Wales, when he left for Tasmania in 1804.
# An Aboriginal word "baroomby" meaning wild in the language of the Pitjara people on the Warrego and Nogoa Rivers in southern Queensland.
# Banjo Paterson said in the introduction for his poem "Brumby's Run" published in the Bulletin in 1894 that Brumby was the word for free-roaming horses.
# A letter in 1896 to the Sydney Morning Herald also says that baroombie is the word for horse among the Aboriginal people of the Balonne, Nebine, Warrego and Bulloo rivers.
# Baramba, which was the name of a creek and station in the Queensland district of Burnett, established in the 1840s and later abandoned, leaving many of the horses to escape into the wild.
# It has also been suggested that the name derives from the Irish word bromach or bromaigh.

The first recorded use of the term in print is in the "Australasian" magazine from Melbourne in 1880, which said that brumbies were the bush name in Queensland for 'wild' horses. In 1885 the "Once a Month" magazine suggested that "brumbies" was a New South Wales term.

The term "brumby" also appears in American regional English, but it appears to have an entirely different meaning. It is used to describe persons whose behavior is inexplicable or whose attitudes lie far outside the mainstream. It is believed to have arisen in the southeastern part of the United States, primarily in Georgia and Tennessee, and is not in widespread use.

Early horse imports

Horses first arrived in Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet of Irish and British settlers. They were brought to be utility and working farm horses; recreational riding and racing were not major activities. By 1800, it is estimated that only about 200 horses had made it to Australia. Horse racing began to gain popularity around 1810, causing an influx of Thoroughbred imports, mostly from England. By 1820, roughly 3500 horses were living in Australia, and by 1850 this number had grown to 160,000, largely due to natural increase.Dobbie, W. R., Berman, D. M., & Braysher, M. L. (1993) "Managing vertebrate pests: Feral horses." Canberra: Australia Government Publishing Service] Due to the long journey by sea from England, Europe, and Asia, only the strongest horses survived the trip to Australia, making for a particularly healthy and strong Australian stock, which aided in their ability to flourish. [McKnight, T. (1976) "Friendly vermin- Survey of feral livestock in Australia." Berkeley: University of California Press]

Origin of feral herds

It is thought that horses were confined primarily to the Sydney region until the early 1800s when settlers first crossed the Blue Mountains and opened expansion inland. Horses were required for travel, and for cattle and sheep droving as the pastoral industry grew. The first report of an escaped horse is in 1804, and by the 1840s wild horses spanned the continent, from Sydney to Western Australia. It is likely that some escaped because fences were not properly installed, when fences existed at all, [http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/horse/index.html Australia Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. (2004) Feral horse. (Equus caballus) and feral donkey. (Equus asinus): Invasive species fact sheet.] Retrieved May 8, 2008.] but it is believed that most Australian horses became feral because they were released into the wild and left to fend for themselves. [Berger, J. (1986) "Wild horses of the Great Basin." Sydney: University of Chicago Press.] This may have been the result of pastoralists abandoning their settlements, and thus their horses, due to the arid conditions and unfamiliar land that combined to make farming in Australia especially difficult. After World War I, the demand for horses by defence forces declined with the growth in mechanization, which led to a growth in the number of unwanted animals that were often set free. Throughout the twentieth century, the replacement of horses with machines in farming led to further decreases in the need for horses, and therefore may have also contributed to increases in feral populations.Nimmo, D. G., & Miller, K. K. (2007) Ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in Australia: A review. Wildlife Research, 34, 408-417.]

Currently, Australia has the largest feral horse population in the world, with at least 400,000 individuals estimated to be roaming the continent. [Dawson, M. J., Lane, C. & Saunders, G. (2006) Proceedings of the National Feral Horse Management Workshop, Retrieved May 9, 2008 from http://www.invasiveanimals.com/downloads/FeralHorse_web.pdf] It is also estimated that, during periods of non-drought, the feral horse population increases at a rate of 20% per year. [Eberhardt, L. L.; Majorowicz, A. K.; Wilcox, J. A.(1982). "Apparent rates of increase for two feral horse herds." "Journal of Wildlife Management," 46, 367-374.] Despite being so populous, feral horses are generally considered to be only a moderate pest.Bomford, M., & Hart, Q. (2002). "Non-indigenous vertebrates in Australia." In Biological invasions: Economic and environmental costs of alien plant, animal, and microbe species. David Pimental (Ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.]

Brumbies as a Resource

It is possible to train captured Brumbies to be used as stock horses and other saddle horses. Encouraging viewing of feral Brumby herds may also have potential as a tourist attraction. Brumbies are sometimes sold into the European horse meat market after their capture, and contribute millions of dollars to the Australian economy. Approximately 30% of horses for meat export originates from the feral population. The hides and hair of these horses are also used and sold.

Several New South Wales show societies, including Walcha, Bellingen and Dorrigo hold special classes for registered brumbies at their agricultural shows. [The Land Magazine, p.3, 19 June 2008]

Environmental impacts

Horses were first described as pests in Australia in the 1860s. [ [http://www.feral.org.au/content/species/horse.cfm Pest Animal Control CRC. Feral horse. (Equus caballus)] Retrieved May 9, 2008] Today, negative environmental impacts may include soil loss, compaction, and erosion; trampling of vegetation; reduction in the vastness of plants; increased tree deaths by chewing on bark; damage to bog habitats and waterholes; spreading of invasive weeds; and various detrimental effects on population of native species. In some cases, when feral horses are startled, they may damage infrastructure, including troughs, pipes, and fences. On the other hand, grazing Brumbies also reduce vegetation buildup and thus may reduce the risk of massiveley destructive bushfires that destroy native flora and fauna and are often followed by severe flooding. [The Age, 23 March 2003] Brumbies also help keep tracks and trails clear for bush walkers and service vehicles. [Walcha News, p.6, 17 July 2008]

There is a concern that the hooves of free-roaming horses compact the soil, and when the soil is compacted, air spaces are minimized, leaving nowhere for water to collect. [Dyring, J. (1990). The impact of feral horses. (Equus caballus) on sub-alpine and montane environments. Canberra: University of Canberra Press.] When this occurs, soil in areas where horses are prevalent has a water penetration resistance over 15 times higher than that in areas without horses. [Beever, E. A., and Herrick, J. E. (2006) Effects of feral horses in Great Basin landscapes on soils and ants: direct and indirect mechanisms. Journal of Arid Environments, 66, 96–112.] Trampling also causes soil erosion and damages vegetation, and because the soil cannot hold water, plant regrowth is hindered. Horse trampling also has the potential to damage waterways and bog habitats. Trampling near streams increases runoff, reducing the quality of the water and causing harm to the ecosystem of the waterway. [Rogers, G. M. (1991) Kaimanawa feral horses and their environmental impacts. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 15, 49–64.] Horse excrement tends to foul these waterways, as does the accumulation of carcasses that result when feral horses perish, adding to the negative environmental impact of this exotic species in Australia.

Feral horses may also reduce the richness of plant species. [Dyring, J. (1990). The impact of feral horses. (Equus caballus) on sub-alpine and montane environments. Canberra: University of Canberra Press.] Exposure of soil caused by trampling and vegetation removal via grazing, combined with increased nutrients being recycled by horse dung, favour weed species, which then invade the region and overtake native species, diminishing their diversity. The dispersal of weeds is aided by the attachment of seeds to the horses’ manes and tails, and are also transferred via horse dung after consumption of weeds in one location and excrement in another. Although the effects of the weeds that actually germinate after transfer via dung is debated, the fact that a large number of weed species are dispersed via this method is of concern to those interested in the survival of native plant species in Australia. [Campbell, J. E., and Gibson, D. J. (2001) "The effect of seeds of exotic species transported via horse dung on vegetation along trail corridors." "Plant Ecology," 157, 23–35.] The effect on plants and plant habitats are more pronounced during droughts, when horses travel greater distances to find food and water. They consume the already threatened and limited vegetation, and their negative influences are more widespread. Feral horses may also chew the bark of trees, which may leave some trees vulnerable to external threats. This has occurred during drought, among eucalypt species on the Red Range plateau. [Bark Chewing on Red Range plateau, GFRNP: http://www.ecoman.une.edu.au/staff/kvernes/Ashton.pdf] It appears as though feral horses may prefer these species.

Interaction with other animal species

The changes in vegetation that result when feral horses overpopulate a region affects bird species by removing plants upon which they feed, as well as altering the habitat of the birds and their prey. [Levin, P. S., Ellis, J., Petrik, R., and Hay, M. E. (2002) "Indirect effects of feral horses on estuarine communities." "Conservation Biology," 16, 1364–1371.] Feral horse grazing is also linked to a decline in reptiles and amphibians due to habitat loss. [Clemann, N. (2002). "A herpetofauna survey of the Victorian alpine region, with a review of threats to these species." "Victorian Naturalist," 119, 48–58.] In addition, the grazing and trampling near waterways influences aquatic fauna. In areas frequented by horses, crab densities are higher, increasing the propensity for predation on fish. As a result, fish densities decline as the removal of vegetation renders them more susceptible to predation. [Levin, P. S., Ellis, J., Petrik, R., and Hay, M. E. (2002) "Indirect effects of feral horses on estuarine communities." "Conservation Biology," 16, 1364–1371.]

In areas where horses are abundant, macropod populations are less prevalent. This is most likely due to the horses’ consumption of vegetation upon which the macropods normally feed. When horses are removed, signs of the presence of various macropods, specifically the blackfooted rock wallaby, increase. Thus, competition with horses may be the reason for the decline in macropod populations in certain areas. [Matthews, D., Bryan, R., and Edwards, G. (2001) Recovery of the blackfooted rock-wallaby following horse removal on Finke Gorge National Park, Northern Territory. In Nimmo (2007)]

Feral horses are of concern to the farming industry, as they are alleged to feed on pasture grasses meant for cattle and destroy fences.Fact|date=May 2008 They also have the potential to pass exotic diseases, such as equine influenza and African horse sickness, as well as tick fever, to domestic horses and cattle.Fact|date=May 2008 This can lead to high fatalities among domestic populations, causing many farmers to call for the management of feral horses.

Population management

Although poor management of feral horses may pose a ecological and environmental threat in some parts of Australia, their management is made difficult by issues of feasibility and public concern. Currently, management attempts vary, as feral horses are considered pests in some states, such as South Australia, but not others, including Queensland. There is also controversy over removal of brumbies from National Parks. The primary argument in favor of the removal of brumbies is that they are alleged to be incompatible with fragile ecosystems and damage and destroy endangered native flora and fauna.

Public concern is a major issue in control efforts [Nimmo, D. G., Miller, K., & Adams, R. (2007). Managing feral horses in Victoria: A study of community attitudes and perceptions. Ecological Management & Restoration 8 (3) , 237–243] as many advocate for the protection of Brumbies, including the Aboriginal people, who believe feral horses belong to the country. Other horse interest groups resent the labelling of horses as “feral” and are completely opposed to any measures that threaten their survival. [Chapple, R. (2005). "The politics of feral horse management in Guy Fawkes River National Park, NSW." "Australian Zoologist," 33, 233–246.] Many horse lovers and animal rights advocates oppose culling techniques and attempt to organise relocation of the animals instead. However, it has been argued that relocation, which often involves hours of helicopter mustering, would be more traumatic for the horses. Animal welfare groups aim to protect animals, including feral horses, from cruelty and exploitation, as well as from “unnecessary stress” caused by control efforts.

Meanwhile, conservationist groups, such as the Australian Conservation Foundation, condone humane culling as a means of control because of the damage Brumby overpopulation can cause to native flora and fauna, but are also generally opposed to various means of extermination. [Senate Select Committee on Animal Welfare. (1991). Culling of large feral animals in the Northern Territory. Canberra: Senate Printing Unit.] This makes management a challenge for policymakers, though at present, the cost of allowing overpopulation of feral horses seems to outweigh other concerns.

Population control methods

Options for population control include fertility control, ground and helicopter shooting, and mustering and trapping. None of the methods provide complete freedom from suffering for the horses, and the cost of each is very high. The costs include those that are economic, such as research, equipment purchases, and labour expenditures, as well as moral concerns over the welfare of the horses. As a result, more effective and efficient means of control are necessary.

Fertility control is usually viewed as the most humane treatment, as it is non-lethal. Killian, G. L. A., Miller, N. K., Diehl, J., Rhyan, J., and Thain, D. (2004) "Evaluation of three contraceptive approaches for population control of wild horses." "Proceedings of the 21st Vertebrate Pest Conference," 21, 263–268. In Nimmo (2007)] It involves injecting horses with hormones which render them infertile. While it appears as though these treatments are effective in the breeding season immediately following injection, the lasting effects are debated. Because it is costly and difficult to treat animals repeatedly, this method, despite being ideal, is not widely implemented.

Shooting by trained marksmen is considered by many to be the most practical method of control because it is effective and animals that are initially wounded and not killed may be tracked and dispatched if they are in accessible, open country. It is not a humane means for destruction of horses in mountain ranges. [The Australian Veterinay Association (AVA) spoke out about the Guy Fawkes River National Park brumby cull: http://www.brumbywatchaustralia.com/GFRNP-AVA_speaks.htm] Helicopter shootings allow for aerial reconnaissance of a large area to target the densest populations, and shooters may get close enough to the target animals to ensure termination. This method is the most effective and cost efficient means of control, but disapproval is high amongst those that believe it is inhumane. Mustering is a labour intensive process that results in one of two major outcomes: slaughter for sale, or relocation. It may be assisted by feed-luring in which bales of hay are strategically placed to attract feral horses to a location where capture is feasible. Complicating this process is low demand for the captured horses, making it less desirable than fertility control or shooting, which reduce the population without having to find alternative locations for them.

Management in National Parks

Between 22 October and 24 October, 2000, more than 600 wild horses were killed in the Guy Fawkes River National Park by the National Parks and Wildlife Service. [ [http://www.savethebrumbies.org/ Save the Brumbies] ] Since the campaign began to remove horses from there over 400 have been taken from the Park and 200 of these have been re-homed. [The Land Magazine, p.3, 19 June 2008]

The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service commenced a plan in 2007 to reduce brumby numbers by passive trapping in the Oxley Wild Rivers National Park. [cite web|title=Feral Horse Management Plan Draft - Oxley Wild Rivers National Park|date=January, 2006|url=http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/PDFs/draft_pom_feral_horses_oxley.pdf|accessdate=2007-11-04|publisher=New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service] Over 60 brumbies captured in the Apsley River Gorge have now been re-homed. In 2008 aerial culling of brumbies, by shooting, recommenced in Carnarvon Gorge [ [http://www.savethebrumbies.org/2008/03/05/shocking-aerial-slaughter/ Shocking Aerial Slaughter] ] in Carnarvon National Park, Queensland.

In literature and media

Brumbies, called "wild bush horses," are mentioned in Banjo Paterson's iconic poem The Man from Snowy River. [ [http://www.middlemiss.org/lit/authors/patersonab/poetry/snowy.html "Man from Snowy River" poem by Banjo Peterson] ] This poem was expanded into the films "The Man from Snowy River" and "The Man from Snowy River II" — (US title: "Return to Snowy River" — UK title: "The Untamed") — also "The Man from Snowy River (TV series)" and "".

The popular Silver Brumby books by Elyne Mitchell were written for children and young adults. [ [http://extranet.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/LLAE/viewpoint/sp02bo.shtml Prentice, jeff. "A Tribute: ELYNE MITCHELL, 1913 - 2002 MATRIARCH OF THE HIGH COUNTRY." "Viewpoint: On Books for Young Adults" Volume 10, Number 3, Spring 2002] ] The stories describe the adventures of Thowra, a brumby stallion. [ [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0006754708 Amazon.com listing, containing a review from "School Library Journal"] ] These stories were dramatised and made into a movie of the same name (also known as "The Silver Stallion: King of the Wild Brumbies"), starring Russell Crowe and Caroline Goodall. [ [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108137/ iMDB on The Silver Brumby] ]

The brumby was adopted as an emblem in 1996 by then newly-formed Brumbies, a Super 14 rugby union team based in Canberra, Australia. [cite web | title = Official site of Brumbies Rugby | publisher = CA Brumbies | date = 2007 | url = http://www.brumbies.com.au/ | accessdate = 2007-10-31]

ee also

* Feral horse
* Invasive species in Australia

References

External links

* [http://www.invasives.org.au Invasive Species Council]
* [http://www.brumbywatchaustralia.com/old_index.htm Brumby Watch]
* [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/australianbrumby/ Okstate]
* [http://www.guyfawkesheritagehorse.com.au Heritage Horse]
* [http://www.savethebrumbies.org Save The Brumbies Inc]