Doubly labeled water

Doubly labeled water is water in which both the hydrogen and the oxygen have been partly or completely replaced for tracing purposes (i.e., labeled) with an uncommon isotope of these elements.

In practice, for both practical and safety reasons, almost all recent applications of the "doubly labeled water" method use water labeled with the heavy, non-radioactive forms of the elements deuterium and oxygen-18 (O-18 or ¹⁸O), or deuterium oxide-18 (D₂¹⁸O). In theory, radioactive forms of hydrogen and oxygen could be used for such labeling, and this was the case in many early applications of the method.

In particular, use of the doubly labeled water method (or DLW method) yields a particular type of measurement of metabolic rate, in which the average metabolic rate of an organism is measured over a period of time. This is done by administering a dose of doubly labeled water, and then measuring the elimination rates of deuterium and O-18 in the subject over time through the regular sampling of heavy isotope concentrations in the body water (by sampling saliva, urine, or blood). The minimum number of samples required is two—an initial sample after the isotopes have reached equilibrium in the body, and a second sample some time later. The time between the collecting of these samples depends on size of the animal involved. In small animals the period may be as short as 24 hours, and in larger animals like adult humans, the period may be as long as 14 days. In animals this average daily metabolic rate measured by the DLW method is often also called the Field metabolic rate or FMR. The method was invented in the 1950s by Nathan Lifson and colleagues ^[1][2] at the University of Minnesota; however, its use was restricted to small animals until the 1980s because of the high cost of the oxygen-18 isotope. Advances in mass spectrometry during the 1970s and early 1980s reduced the amount of isotope required, which made it feasible to apply the method to humans.^[3] The first application to humans was in 1982,^[4] by Dale Schoeller, over 25 years after the method was initially discovered. A complete summary of the technique is provided in a book by British biologist John Speakman ^[5]

Mechanism of the test

The technique measures a subject's carbon dioxide production during the interval between first and last body water samples. The method depends on the fact that oxygen in body water (including the marker dose of ¹⁸O) equilibrates with the body's bicarbonate and dissolved carbon dioxide pool (through the action of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase), and is therefore lost from the body in carbon dioxide. This was discovered by Lifson in 1949.^[6] Additionally, the oxygen in water is lost through body water loss (urine and evaporative water losses). However, as deuterium (as a second label and marker for body water) is lost only in water, the deuterium change in body water over time can be used to mathematically compensate for the loss of tracer ¹⁸O by the water-loss route. This leaves only the remaining net loss of ¹⁸O in carbon dioxide, and thus an estimate for total carbon dioxide production. Once this is known, the total metabolic rate may be estimated from simplifying assumptions regarding the ratio of oxygen used in metabolism (and therefore heat generated), to carbon dioxide eliminated (see respiratory quotient). This quotient can be measured in other ways, and almost always has a value between 0.7 and 1.0, and for a mixed diet is usually about 0.8.

In lay terms:

• Metabolism can be calculated from oxygen-in/CO₂-out.
• DLW ('tagged') water is traceable hydrogen (deuterium), and traceable oxygen (¹⁸O).
• The ¹⁸O leaves the body in two ways: (i) exhaled CO₂, and (ii) water loss in (mostly) urine, sweat, & breath.
• BUT: the deuterium leaves only in the second way (water loss).

SO: from deuterium loss, we know how much of the tagged water left the body as water. And, since the concentration of ¹⁸O in the body's water is measured after the labeling dose is given, we also know how much of the tagged oxygen left the body in the water. (A simpler view is that the ratio of deuterium to ¹⁸O in body water is fixed, so total loss-rate of deuterium from the body multiplied by this ratio, immediately gives the loss rate of ¹⁸O in water. Measurement of ¹⁸O dilution with time gives the total loss of this isotope by all routes (by water and respiration). Since the ratio of ¹⁸O to total water oxygen in the body is measured, we can convert ¹⁸O loss in respiration to total oxygen lost from the body's water pool via conversion to carbon dioxide. How much oxygen left the body as CO₂ is the same as the CO₂ produced by metabolism, since the body only produces CO₂ by this route. The CO₂ loss tells us the energy produced, if we know or can estimate the respiratory quotient (ratio of CO₂ produced to oxygen used).

Practical isotope administration

Doubly labeled water may be administered by injection, or orally (the usual route in humans). Since the isotopes will be diluted in body water, there is no need to administer them in a state of high isotopic purity, no need to employ water in which all or even most atoms are heavy atoms, or even to begin with water which is doubly labeled. Nor is it necessary to administer exactly one atom of ¹⁸O for every two atoms of deuterium. This matter in practice is governed by the economics of buying ¹⁸O enriched water, and the sensitivity of the mass-spectrographic equipment available.

In practice, doses of doubly labeled water for metabolic work are prepared by simply mixing a dose of deuterium oxide (heavy water) (90 to 99%) with a second dose of H₂¹⁸O, which is water which has been separately enriched with ¹⁸O (though usually not to a high level, since doing this would be expensive, and unnecessary for this use), but otherwise contains normal hydrogen. The mixed water sample then contains both types of heavy atoms, in a far higher degree than normal water, and is now "doubly labeled." The free interchange of hydrogens between water molecules (via normal ionization) in liquid water ensures that the pools of oxygen and hydrogen in any sample of water (including the body's pool of water) will be separately equilibriated in a short time with any dose of added heavy isotope(s).

Applications

The doubly labeled water method is particularly useful for measuring average metabolic rate (Field metabolic rate) over relatively long periods of time (a few days or weeks), in subjects for which other types of direct or indirect calorimetric measurements of metabolic rate would be difficult or impossible. For example, the technique can measure the metabolism of animals in the wild state, with the technical problems being related mainly to how to administer the dose of isotope, and collect several samples of body water at later times to check for differential isotope elimination.

Most animal studies involve capturing the subject animals and injecting them, then holding them for a variable period before the first blood sample has been collected. This period depends on the size of the animal involved and varies between 30 minutes for very small animals to 6 hours for much larger animals. In both animals and humans, the test is made more accurate if a single determination of respiratory quotient has been made for the organism eating the standard diet at the time of measurement, since this value changes relatively little (and more slowly) compared with the much larger metabolic rate changes related to thermoregulation and activity.

Because the heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes used in the standard doubly labeled water measurement are non-radioactive, and also non-toxic in the doses used (see heavy water), the doubly labeled water measurement of mean metabolic rate has been used extensively in human volunteers, and even in infants.^[7] and pregnant women.^[8] The technique has been used on over 200 species of wild animals (mostly birds, mammals and some reptiles). Applications of the method to animals have been reviewed.^[9][10]

References

1. ^ Lifson, N., Gordon, G.B. and McClintock, R. (1955) Measurement of total carbon dioxide production by means of D218O. J. Appl. Physiol., 7, 704-710.
2. ^ Lifson, N. and McClintock R. (1966) Theory of use of the turnover rates of body water for measuring energy and material balance. J. Theor. Biol., 12, 46-74.
3. ^ Speakman JR (October 1998). "The history and theory of the doubly labeled water technique". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68 (4): 932S–938S. PMID 9771875. 
4. ^ Schoeller, D.A. and van Santen, E. (1982) Measurement of energy expenditure in humans by doubly labelled water. J. Appl. Physiol., 53, 955-959.
5. ^ Speakman, J.R., Doubly Labelled Water: Theory and Practice. Springer Scientific publishers. ISBN 0412637804 ISBN 978-0412637803 416pp)
6. ^ Lifson, N., Gordon, G.B., Visscher, M.B. and Nier, A.O. (1949) The fate of utilized molecular oxygen and the source of the oxygen of respiratory carbon dioxide, studied with the aid of heavy oxygen. J. Biol. Chem. A , 180, 803-811.
7. ^ Jones PJ, Winthrop AL, Schoeller DA, et al. (March 1987). "Validation of doubly labeled water for assessing energy expenditure in infants". Pediatr. Res. 21 (3): 242–6. doi:10.1203/00006450-198703000-00007. PMID 3104873. 
8. ^ Heini A, Schutz Y, Diaz E, Prentice AM, Whitehead RG, Jéquier E (July 1991). "Free-living energy expenditure measured by two independent techniques in pregnant and nonpregnant Gambian women". Am. J. Physiol. 261 (1 Pt 1): E9–17. PMID 1858878. 
9. ^ Speakman, JR (2000) The cost of living: Field metabolic rates of small mammals. Advances in Ecological Research 30: 177-297
10. ^ Nagy, KA (2005) Field metabolic rates and body size. Journal of Experimental Biology 208, 1621-1625.