Pre-Columbian Ecuador

Numerous indigenous cultures thrived in Ecuador for thousands of years before it was conquered by Inca. The Valdivia culture in the Pacific coast region is a well-known early Ecuadorian culture. Ancient Valdivian artifacts from as early as 3500 B.C have been found along the coast north of the Guayas Province in the modern city of Santa Elena.

Several other cultures, including the Quitus, Caras and Cañaris emerged in other parts of Ecuador. There are other major archaeological sites in the coastal provinces of Manabí and Esmeraldas and in the middle Andean highland provinces of Tungurahua and Chimborazo. With the archaeological evidence uncovered to date, we know that Ecuador was inhabited for at least 4,500 years before the Inca arrived; however, many believe that the area was populated even earlier, possibly as far back as 12,000 B.C. or before.

Great tracts of Ecuador, including almost all of the "Oriente" (Amazon rainforest), remain unknown to archaeologists, a fact that adds credence to the possibility of early human habitation. There has been increased attention to the Amazon region recently but the forest is so remote and dense that it takes years for research teams to survey even a small area. This is confirmed by the recent discovery of the Mayo-Chinchipe Cultural Complex in the Zamora-Chinchipe Province [ [http://www.arqueo-ecuatoriana.ec Arqueología Ecuatoriana - Inicio ] ] .

tone Age

Edward Whymper sought Stone Age objects while in Ecuador during 1880. Most of the items he collected from those brought to him were stone; he thought that most metal artifacts had been smelted in search of any gold they contained.cite book
last =Whymper
first =Edward
authorlink =Edward Whymper
title =Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator
publisher =John Murray
date =1892
location =London
pages =268-286 ]

tars in stone

By far the most common object was a stone star with a hole through the middle. They were found everywhere between Ibarra and Riobamba. The majority have six rays (and none have more), proceeding symmetrically from the center, and the whole are fashioned alike upon each side. A certain number have only five rays, and occasional examples are irregular in shape. All are pierced by a hole, which has been drilled from the two sides, and the size of this varies considerably. In dimensions they range from three to five inches in diameter and from three-quarters of an inch to two inches in thickness. Their weight is from five to twenty ounces. The larger part are made from basaltic rock and gabbro. Objects of this class were also cast in metal but these are now rarely found in Ecuador.

Whilst they possess the general points of similarity that have been mentioned, scarcely any two are identical in form. Some are flat and thin, others are thick, or rise in the center upon each side into a shape like the hub of a wheel.

In a U.S. Naval expedition report, [cite book
title =Report of The U.S. Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern Hemisphere during the years 1849-52
pages =vol. ii, p. 138 ] figures are given of two stars in bronze (found at Cuzco, Peru), one having a sixth ray prolonged into a hatchet, which suggests that it must have been a war-club or battle-axe. In Squire's book on Peru,cite book
last =Squier
first =E. George
title =Peru, Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas
date =1877
location =New York
pages =177 cited by Whymper, 1892.] there is a figure of a six-rayed object in bronze, said to have been one of several, which are designated by the author (apparently following some earlier writer) "casse-têtes", and he says that among the fractured skulls that were found "the larger part seemed to have been broken by blows from some such weapons." Mons. Wiener, in his book on Peru and Bolivia [cite book
last =Wiener
title =Pérou et Bolivie
date =1880
location =Paris
pages =685 cited by Whymper, 1892.] gives a figure of a star which was found at Ancon (near Lima) showing a stick inserted in the central hole; and another figure of a somewhat similar from in bronze, also handled. Like Squier, he calls them "casse-têtes". Finally, the Doctors Reiss and Stübel remark, in their magnificent work upon the Peruvian antiquities obtained at Ancon, [cite book
last =Reiss
first =W.
coauthors =A. Stübel
title =The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru
date =1880-1887
location =London and Berlin cited by Whymper, 1892.] that "the few stone objects found here show but slight traces of workmanship, an exception being … a stone weapon of the morning star type … the six-rayed stone star, here found once only, is elsewhere in Peruvian graves by no means rare."

Though all these writers appear to regard these objects as a kind of battle-axe (and are probably correct so far as those having a ray prolonged into a hatchet are concerned), there are several considerations which suggest these objects were habitually used as weapons. The larger of the stars (which are as heavy as a pound and a quarter) no doubt might be used effectively; but the smaller ones, weighing only a few ounces, would not be very formidable; and taking them as a whole they are less adapted either for offensive or defensive purposes than most of the other stone implements. To this may be added that many are uninjured, and do not seem to have been put to any use whatever. Francisco Campaña (a half-Indian who joined the latter part of Whymper's journey) had assisted in the examination of graves in Peru, and said these stars in stone were found there placed upon the breasts of corpses; and it seems likely that they were to the Children of the Sun symbols of the luminary that they worshipped.

Implements

A large number of stone objects were found which were undoubtedly implements.

Five types are shown in the illustration with a white background. In the top row, series A-E, the whole of the edges are rounded, except the bottom ones. In the next line (F-J) all are of a chisel type. The tops and sides of these are sometimes flat or angular, and sometimes rounded; and the lower, or cutting edges, are sharp. The examples in the next series (K-O) bear some resemblance to a bill-hook; the top edges are flat; and they are all pierced with holes drilled from the two sides. The specimens in the next row have similar holes—otherwise they approximate to the chisel type; while the type represented in the bottom series U-Y differs from all the others in having projecting shoulders, and (occasionally) in having a groove along the length of the top edge, apparently to facilitate handling.

All these five types were found in numbers, in many localities, and have evidently been amongst the most common and generally used implements during the Equatorial Stone Age. In minor respects they exhibit considerable variety, and there are large differences in their size, thickness, and weight. The type P-T was the most numerous. The greater part have holes drilled from each side (with the holes having less in diameter in the middle than on their surfaces), though in some the aperture is as broad internally as externally. The positions of the holes vary, some being central, although most of them are nearest to the top. The lower edge is always the sharpest; and, while many would not have cut butter, there are a few sharp enough to cut wood. Their weight ranges from 3¼ to 29 ounces, and like the stars in stone they have been fashioned from a diversity of rocks.

A large number of implements in stone were obtained, from which selections are given in the illustration with a black background. Those marked E, J, K, L, N-T are unique, and the other forms are more or less rare. The central one, marked M, was the only object for which Equadorian natives could assign a use, and it was pronounced to be a "corn-pounder". This one weighs five and a quarter pounds, and another of eleven pounds was obtained. Several examples of form I were found, which is considered by Mr. Thomas Ewbank to be a "hollowing-hammer for metal" by making a handle with a pliable wood rod. It is possible those marked A, B, and C were used for the same purpose. The objects D, F, G, and H are more puzzling. The two latter somewhat resemble the two others represented here, but differ from them in not having the circular cavities in the sides. The objects of this type are highly wrought, and fashioned out of hard stone. It seems not unlikely that they were used for sharpening tools, and that the examples G, H are unused specimens. They have also been found by M. Wiener in Peru.

Amongst the distinctly ornamental objects in stone there are imitations of Maize-heads. These were particularly mentioned in Juan & Ulloa's work, in the mid 18th century. Spanish writers say:: "The maize has ever been the delight of the Indians; for, besides being their food, their favourite liquor chicha was made of it; the Indian artists therefore used to shew their skill in making ears of it in a kind of very hard stone; and so perfect was the resemblance that they could hardly be distinguished by the eye from nature; especially as the colour was imitated to the greatest perfection; some represented the yellow maize, some the white … The most surprizing circumstance of the whole is, the manner of their working, which, when we consider their want of instruments and the wretched form of those they had, appears an inexplicable mystery: for either they worked with copper tools, a metal little able to resist the hardness of stones, or, to give the nice polish conspicuous on their works, other stones must have been used as tools." [cite book
last =
first =
authorlink =
coauthors =
title =Relacion Historica del viaje a la Americana Meridional
publisher =
origyear=1748
date =1807
location =Madrid
edition=5th English edition, London
chapter =1047,1048 cited by Whymper, 1892.]

Squier gives in his book on Peru a bad representation of one of these stone maize-heads and says that they were specially mentioned "by Padre Arriaga in his rare book on the "Extirpation of Idolatry in Peru" under the name "zaramama"," and were household gods of the ancient inhabitants.

Age of objects

That the principal part of these objects and implements in stone are of considerable or of great age is apparent from the fact that they are scarcely mentioned at the time of the Pizarros. Garcilaso de la Vega says that the Indians: "knew not the invention of putting a handle of Wood to their Hammers, but worked with certain Instruments they had made of Copper, mixed with a sort of fine Brass. Neither did they know how to make Files or Graving-tools, or Bellows for Melting down Metals … But above all, their Carpenters seemed to be worst provided with Tools; for though ours use many Instruments made of Iron, those of "Peru" had no other than a Hatchet, and a Pick-axe made of Copper; they neither had Saw, nor Augre, nor Planer, nor any other Tool for the Carpenter's work, so that they could not make Arches or Portals for doors; onely they hewed and cut their Timber, and whitened it, and then it was prepared for their Building: And for making their Hatchets and Pick-axes, and some few Rakes, they made use of the Silversmiths, for as yet they had not attained to the Art of Working in Iron. Nor did they know how to make Nails, or use them, but tied all their timber with Cords of Hemp. Nor were their Hewers of Stone more artificial, for in cutting and shaping their Stones, they had no other Tool, than one made with some sharp Flints and Pebbles, with which they rather wore out the Stone by continual rubbing, than cutting." [cite book
last =de la Vega
first =Garcilasso
title =The Royal Commentaries of Peru
pages =52-3 cited by Whymper, 1892.]

From this passage it appears that at the time of the Pizarros the Indians used tools of metal for most purposes. The concluding sentence evidently refers solely to fashioning stones for building. Older writers in general do not indicate that they had a congnizance of a Stone Age.

Ecuador under Incan rule

The history of Ecuador is better known from the point of the Inca expansion than during the Pre-Columbian era. In AD 1463, the Inca warrior Pachacuti and his son Tupac Yupanqui began the incorpation of Ecuador into Inca rule. They began by defeating the people of the Sierra including the Quitus trip (the people for whom modern day Quito is named). They continued by heading southwest to the coast eventually subjugating the Ecuadorians living near the Gulf of Guayaquil and the Island of Puna to Inca Rule.

By the end of 15th century, despite fierce resistance by several Ecuadorian native tribes, Huayna Capac, Tupac Yupanqui's son with a Cañari princess (the people from modern day Cuenca), was able to conquer the remaining tribes and by 1500 all of Ecuador was incorporated into the Incan Empire.

Huayna Capac grew up in Ecuador and loved the land. He named Quito the second Inca capital. A road was built to connect the two capitals of Quito and Cusco. Cities and temples were built throughout the country. He married a Quitu princess and remained in the country until his death. When he died unexpectedly before naming an heir it caused turmoil throughout the empire.

Two of his sons sought the throne. Huáscar, born of Huaya Capac's sister in Cusco, was the legitimate heir. Atahualpa, born in Cusco according to the Peruvian historiography and in Quito according to the Ecuadorian, was the usurper. The brothers battled for 6 years killing many men and weakening the empire. Finally in 1532 near Chimborazo, Atahualpa with aid of two of his father's generals defeated his brother. Huáscar was captured and put in prison. Atahualpa became emperor of a severely weaked empire only to face the Spanish conquistadors arrival in 1532. [http://www.galapagosonline.com/predeparture/History/Incas_in_Ecuador.htm Galapagosonline.com Incas in Ecuador] ]

During the period of Inca control, the Ecuadorian tribesmen adopted agricultural practices and the social organization of their Inca rulers, but maintained their traditional religious beliefs and many customs.