Heqanakht papyri

The Heqanakht Papyri, written around 2,000 BCE, have been placed in historical context since 1954, per Cerny, Jareslav (1954). "Prices and Wages in Egypt in the Ramesside Period." Journal of World History, 1, 903-21. Cerny wrote for the Egyptology and Economic history communities by referencing land owners' use of well defined monetary units for hundreds of years.

In 2002, Mahmoud Ezzamel, writing from an ancient economic and accounting point of view, commented on 'observed versus expected' aspects of commodity monetary units by concluding: "Moreover, even when dealing with concrete, visible commodities, such as grain, the intervention of accounting sharpened this visibility by converting the concrete into an abstract theoretical value via the use of 'monies of account' to attain a measure of economic and social reciprocity".

Ezzamel's analysis re-constructed the accounts mentioned in the texts as a modern auditor, finding consistent numerical threads that defined a money system that fairly paid workers, less during flood (inundation) years. For example: "Record of the household's incomes: Ipi (jpj) and her servant woman 8 (heqat), Hetepet (Htp.t) and her servant woman 8 (heqat), Heti's (Ht) son Nakht (nxt) together with his dependants 8 (heqat), Merisu (mr.sw) and his dependants 8 (heqat), Sahathor (zA-Hwt-Hr) 8 (heqat), Sanebnut (ZA-nb-n'.t) 7 (heqat), Anpu (jnp) 4 (heqat), Snefru (snfr.w) 4 (heqat), Sa-inut (zA-jnw.t) 4 (heqat), Mai-sa-hetepet (may-zA-Htp.t) 5 (heqat), Nofret (nfr.t) 3½ (heqat), Satwerut (zA.t-wr.wt) (?) 2 (heqat): Total 79½ (heqat)").

Land owners, renters, profits, and a 10% tax rate were also paid to Pharaoh in the commodity/metals monetary system. For example, the text reports "Furthermore behold, 15 sacks of emmer are in the possession of Nenek-su (nnk-sw) at Hut-haa (Hw.t-hAA) and 13 (sacks ?) and 5 (bushels ?) of Lower Egyptian barley are in the possession of Ipi the Younger (jpj-Xrd) at Yusebek (jw-sbk). That which is in the possession of Neher's (nHr) son Ipi (jpj) at Sepat-mat (spA.t-mA.t) (amounts to) 20 (sacks of) emmer and (in the possession of) his brother Desher (dSr) 3 (sacks). The total is 38 (sacks of emmer and) 13 (sacks) and 5 (bushel ?) (of Lower Egyptian barley). Concerning anyone who will give me oil in payment - he shall give me 1 hbn.t-jar for 2 (sacks) of Lower Egyptian barley or for 3 (sacks) of emmer".

Also in 2002 James P. Allen wrote a general readership book on the Heqanakht papyri. Morris Silver, Professor Emeritus, Department of Economics, City College of the City University of New York fairly reviewed macro and micro aspects of the commodity wages paid to estate workers, and other commodity monetary transactions, cited in the Heqanakht papers. One political aspect included a form of court, run by a local representative of Pharaoh, in which local economic disputes were resolved.

To further discuss the significance of the papyri ancient economic thought, accountancy, and the history of Egyptian fractions can be studied. For example, accounting during the Egyptian Middle Kingdom used a double entry system within expected and observed (practical zero totals). A zero symbol denoted an empty account. The Akhmim Wooden Tablet, the Egyptian Mathematical Leather Roll, the RMP 2/n table, the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the Ebers Papyrus and other mathematical texts reported expected and observed Egyptian fractions totals. Totals were written in quotients and scaled/unscaled remainder units. A meta context of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom weights and measures system had empowered one of the earliest Ancient Near East monetary systems. The Egyptian economy was able to double check it management elements by using double entry accounting, and theoretical/abstract weights and measures units.

Links

*http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/texts/heqanakht.htm, the text
*http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120118222/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 Mahmoud Ezzamel
*http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0868, James P. Allen
*http://members.tripod.com/~sondmor/index-24.html, was Greek coinage first?
*http://www.amazon.com/Economic-Structures-of-Antiquity/dp/B000PY3KRQ, earlier uses of weighed metals as money
*http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egypt_zero.html, nfr (Egyptian zero)
*http://www.egyptologyonline.com/Medicine.htm , list of medical texts