Zuni phonology

Discussions of Zuni phonology are in Michaels (1971), Newman (1965, 1967, 1996), Shaul (1982), Tedlock (1969), Walker (1966, 1972), and Yumitani (1987).

Consonants

The 16 consonants of Zuni (with orthographic symbols in bold italics when different from the IPA phonetic symbol):

* IPA|/t/ is dental; IPA|/ts, s, n/ are alveolar; IPA|/l/ is apical.
* are phonetically aspirated, IPA| [tsʰ, tʃʰ, kʰ, kʷʰ] , while IPA|/p, t, ʔ/ are unaspirated.
* A sequence of a stop or affricate and a glottal stop IPA|/ʔ/ is phonetically realized as an ejective. This pronunciation occurs within words and across word boundaries: IPA|/ʔaːtʃ ʔuluka/ "they two put it in" as IPA| [ʔaːtʃʼulucʰæ] . Some analyses have proposed that the sequences IPA|/tsʔ, tʃʔ, kʔ, kʷʔ/ be considered single ejective consonant phonemes IPA|/tsʼ, tʃʼ, kʼ, kʼʷ/ based on their phonotactic properties. [To be written.... See: Davis (1966), Newman (1965, 1967), Walker (1966, 1972).]
* and IPA|/kʷ/ contrast only before IPA|/i, e, a/; before IPA|/u, o/ the contrast is neutralized to IPA|/k/. This neutralization of contrast also applies to the sequences IPA|/kʔ, kʷʔ/.
* are palatal IPA| [c, cʷ] before the vowels IPA|/i, e, a/, but are velar elsewhere. Since IPA|/k/ is realized as an ejective before a glottal stop, the sequences IPA|/kʔi, kʔe, kʔa/ are phonetically IPA| [cʼi, cʼɛ, cʼæ] .
* In a sequence of a stop or affricate plus another consonant (except IPA|/ʔ/), the stop/affricate is unreleased, e.g. IPA|/moktʃinne/ "elbow" is phonetically IPA| [mɔk˺tʃʰinːɛ] (and not IPA| [mɔkʰtʃʰinːɛ] ).
* All Zuni consonants occur with contrastive duration: short or long. In Newman's analysis, the phonetically long consonants are geminates (that is, a sequence of two identical consonants). Walker (1972) and Granberry (1967) analyze length IPA|/ː/ as a separate phoneme. Geminate affricates are realized with a long closure period and a fricative release, e.g. IPA|/tsts/ as IPA| [tːs] , IPA|/tʃtʃ/ as IPA| [tːʃ] .
* is phonetically a voiceless vowel IPA| [h] , except when following a consonant in which case it is a velar fricative IPA| [x] : IPA|/ʔahha/ "pick it up!" is phonetically IPA| [ʔahxa] .
* The sonorants IPA|/m, n, l, w, j/ (as well as vowels, see below) are optionally devoiced when followed by IPA|/h, ʔ/. The devoicing occurs within words and across word boundaries. This is especially common when also preceded by a voiceless consonant (in addition to the following IPA|/h, ʔ/): IPA|/lesn hol/ "thus perhaps" pronounced as IPA| [lɛsn̥hɔl] .
* is optionally realized as a phonetic velar IPA| [ŋ] before IPA|/k, kʷ/.
* There is a marginal contrast between palatal IPA| [c] and velar IPA| [k] before the low vowel IPA|/a/. The usual pronunciation of IPA|/k/ before IPA|/a/ is palatal IPA| [c] . However, in some words — all of which are probably loanwords — a velar IPA| [k] occurs before IPA|/a/ (notably in the very common word, IPA|/melika/ "non-Mormon Anglo-American", which is phonetically IPA| [mɛlikʰa] and not IPA| [mɛlicʰæ] ). This has led to an analysis of Zuni having two dorsal phonemes, IPA|/kʲ/ and IPA|/k/, by some linguists. A discussion of the disagreement between analyses and range of social variation of certains forms are discussed in Tedlock (1969). [The other articles are Davis (1966), Newman (1967), Michaels (1971), Walker (1966, 1972).]

Vowels

* High IPA|/i, u/ are typically IPA| [i, u] , but lowered variants IPA| [ɪ, ʊ] may be heard in unstressed syllables.
* Mid IPA|/e, o/ are typically IPA| [ɛ, ɔ] , but in unstressed syllables raised variants occur before glides with matching backness: IPA| [e] before IPA|/j/, IPA| [o] before IPA|/w/.
* Low central IPA|/a/, unlike the other vowels, is not reported to have allophonic variation by Newman. However, Walker (1972) reports its realization as fronted IPA| [æ] when it follows IPA|/k/ (phonetically: IPA| [c] ).
* All vowels occur with contrastive duration: short or long. In Newman's analysis, the phonetically long vowels are analyzed as distinct phonemes. Walker (1972) analyzes length IPA|/ː/ as a separate phoneme.
* Long IPA|/eː, oː/ are typically IPA| [ɛː, ɔː] , but close variants IPA| [eː, oː] can occur in fast speech.
* The other long vowels do not have variants with differing vowel quality.
* Short vowels are optionally voiceless IPA| [i̥, ɛ̥, ḁ, ɔ̥, u̥] when at the end of an utterance, e.g. the word IPA|/ʔaɬka/ in IPA|/ʔitʃunan si ʔaɬka/ "after lying down then he slept" may be pronounced either IPA| [ʔaɬcʰæ̥] or IPA| [ʔaɬcʰæ] . Additionally, a short vowel or a sequence of a short vowel and glottal stop that occurs at the end of a word with more than one syllable is deleted when followed by a word that starts with IPA|/h, ʔ/ (see also the devoicing of sonorant consonants above), e.g. IPA|/ʔaːtʃi hinina/ "they two are the same" as IPA| [ʔaːtʃhinina] (cf. IPA|/ʔaːtʃi jeːlahka/ "the two of them ran" where the final IPA|/i/ of IPA|/ʔaːtʃi/ is not deleted), and IPA|/ʔasselaʔ ʔelaje/ "they two are the same" as IPA| [ʔasːɛlʔɛlajɛ] (cf. IPA|/ʔasselaʔ powaje/ "the two of them ran" where the final IPA|/aʔ/ of IPA|/ʔasselaʔ/ is not deleted).

yllable and phonotactics

Zuni syllables have the following specification:

: C₁(C₂)V(ː)(C₃)(C₄)

That is, all syllables must start with a consonant in the syllable onset. The onset may optionally have two consonants. The syllable coda is optional and may consist of a single consonant or two consonants. There are restrictions on the combinations with long vowels, which are listed below.

"Onset". When the onset is a single consonant (i.e., CV(ː), CV(ː)C, or CV(ː)CC), C₁ may be any consonant. When the onset is a two consonant cluster (i.e., CCV(ː), CCV(ː)C, or CCV(ː)CC), C₁ may only be IPA|/ts, tʃ, k, kʷ/, and C₂ may only be IPA|/ʔ/. These onset clusters can occur word-initially.

"Nucleus". Any vowel of either length may be the syllable nucleus when open (i.e., has no coda: CV(ː) or CCV(ː)) or with a single consonant coda (i.e., CV(ː)C or CCV(ː)C). When the coda consists of two consonant cluster, the nucleus may be any short vowel; however, long vowels only occur with coda consisting of IPA|/tsʔ, tʃʔ, kʔ, kʷʔ/. [Newman (1965) reports only IPA|/kʔ/ after long vowels, but further fieldwork by Walker (1966) also finds IPA|/tsʔ, tʃʔ, kʷʔ/.]

"Coda". A single coda C₃ may be any consonant. When the coda is a two consonant cluster (i.e., CV(ː)CC or CCV(ː)CC), any combination of consonants may occur with the following exception: if C₃ is IPA|/ts, tʃ, kʷ/, then C₄ can only be either IPA|/ʔ/ or an identical consonant (C₃ = C₄).

"Non-tautosyllabic combinations". Inside words, a short vowel plus a two consonant coda (i.e., CVCC or CCVCC) may only be followed by a syllable with a IPA|/ʔ/ onset. Likewise, a long vowel plus a single consonant coda (i.e., CVːC or CCVːC) may only be followed by a IPA|/ʔ/ onset. An open syllable (i.e., CV(ː) or CCV(ː)) and a short vowel plus a single consonant coda (i.e., CVC or CCVC) may be followed by a syllable with any possible onset.

Prosody

At the word level, the first syllable of lexical words receive stress. Although the acoustic correlates of stress are not fully described in Newman's grammar, at least vowel length is a significant correlate: short vowels are lengthened under syllable-initial stress. Stressed long vowels do not appear to have perceptible variation in duration.

Stress at the phrase level was not fully studied by Newman, and, therefore, its details are not well-known. Pronouns and certain particles consisting of a single syllable are unstressed when inside clauses, but are stressed at the beginning of phrases.

* intonation...

Notes

References

*Bunzel, Ruth L. (1934). Zuni. In "Handbook of American Indian languages" (Vol. 3, pp. 383-515). Gluckstadt: J. J. Augustin.
* Davis, Irvine. (1966). [Review of "Zuni grammar" by Stanley Newman] . "International Journal of American Linguistics", "32", 82-84.
*Dutton, Bertha P. (1983). "American Indians of the Southwest". Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
*Michaels, David. (1971). A note on some exceptions in Zuni phonology. "International Journal of American Linguistics", "37", 189-191.
*Newman, Stanley. (1954). A practical Zuni orthography. In J. Roberts & W. Smith (Eds.), "Zuni law: A field of values" (pp. 163-170). Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology (Vol. 43, No. 1). Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum, Harvard University. ISBN 0-527-01312-9
*Newman, Stanley. (1955). Vocabulary levels: Zuni sacred and slang usage. "Southwestern Journal of Anthropology", "11", 345-354.
*Newman, Stanley. (1958). "Zuni dictionary". Indiana University research center publications (No. 6). Bloomington: Indiana University.
*Newman, Stanley. (1965). "Zuni grammar". University of New Mexico publications in anthropology (No. 14). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico.
*Newman, Stanley. (1967). Zuni grammar: Alternative solutions versus weaknesses. "International Journal of American Linguistics", "33", 187-192.
*Newman, Stanley. (1996). Sketch of the Zuni language. In I. Goddard (Ed.) "Handbook of North American Indians: Languages" (Vol. 17, pp. 483-506). Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
*Shaul, David. (1982). Glottalized consonants in Zuni. "International Journal of American Linguistics", "48" (1), 83-85.
* Tedlock, Dennis. (1969). The problem of k in Zuni phonemics. "International Journal of American Linguistics", "35", 67-71.
* Tedlock, Dennis. (1972). "Finding the center: Narrative poetry of the Zuni Indians". New York: Dial.
* Tedlock, Dennis. (1983). "The spoken word and the work of interpretation". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
* Tedlock, Dennis. (1999). "Finding the center: The art of the Zuni storyteller" (2nd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
*Walker, Willard. (1964). "Reference, taxonomy and inflection in Zuni". (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University).
*Walker, Willard. (1966). [Review of "Zuni grammar" by Stanley Newman] . "Language", "42" (1), 176-180.
*Walker, Willard. (1966). Inflection and taxonomic structure in Zuni. "International Journal of American Linguistics", "32" (3), 217-227.
*Walker, Willard. (1972). Toward a sound pattern of the Zuni. "International Journal of American Linguistics", "38" (4), 240-259.
*Yumitani, Yukihiro. (1987). A comparative sketch of Pueblo languages: Phonology. In "Kansas working papers in linguistics" (No. 12, pp. 119-139). University of Kansas.