Joseon Dynasty politics

The politics of the Joseon Dynasty, which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1910, were governed by the reigning ideology of Neo-Confucianism. Political struggles were common between different factions of the literati. Purges frequently resulted in leading political figures being sent into exile or condemned to death.

The political system of this period was dominated by a Neo-Confucian bureaucracy. The power of the bureaucrats often eclipsed that of the central authorities, including the monarch. For much of the dynasty, a complex system of checks and balances prevented any one section of the government from gaining overwhelming power.

Government

The king

The king served for life, unlike any of his appointees. The kings of Joseon were all of the Jeonju Yi clan and notionally descended from Taejo, although some were adopted. For a list of Joseon kings, see List of Korean monarchs.

Civil service

Only males of the yangban class were permitted to serve in positions of responsibility outside the military; in most cases, they were required to have passed the gwageo literary examinations. Membership in the yangban class was restricted to legitimate children of yangban families. In addition, people from the troublesome northern provinces of Hamgyeong and Pyeongan were barred from office for much of the dynasty.

Officials served in positions for fixed terms, varying from one year to five years. A successful official might serve in tens of positions in the course of a career.

tate council

The State Council was the highest deliberative body of the Joseon Dynasty, but it faded in importance after first centuries of rule.

ix Ministries

The Six Ministries, or "Yukjo", were the main organs of government. They included the Ministries of Personnel, Rites, Public Works, Military Affairs, Taxation, and Punishment.

amsa

The Samsa were the Three Offices: the Office of the Inspector General (사헌부, 司憲府), and the Office of the Censor-General (사간원 ,司諫院), and the Office of Special Advisors (홍문관 ,弘文館), These were established in this form in the reign of Sejo of Joseon; the Office of Special Advisors took the place of the Hall of Worthies which he had abolished.

The Samsa provided a key check on the powers of the other branches of government. The Inspector-General and Censor-General had the unique power to vet potential appointees for all positions, and examine their family backgrounds. [Lee (1984), p. 176.] They thus played a role in maintaining the integrity of the yangban aristocracy.

Local government

Each county, and each hyeon, was overseen by a local magistrate appointed by the central government. The yangban of each county ("gun") composed a Local Office. This interacted with local officials, typically of a lower class, who were known as "hyangni". The "hyangni" typically served for life in hereditary posts. The "hyangni" of each county had an ambassador in the capital who was charged with communicating between them and the central government.

Factions

Throughout the Dynasty, various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance of the political system. The factions evolved and shifted with the generations. In the earliest years of Joseon, tension between the capital faction and the Yeongnam-based Sarim faction predominated. In the 16th century, a nationwide split occurred between the Eastern faction ("Dong-in") and Western factions ("Seo-in"). The Eastern faction in turn split under the reign of Seonjo between the hard-line Northern faction ("Buk-in") and the moderate Southern faction ("Nam-in"). [Lee (1984), p. 221.] The Western faction later split in its turn, between the Old Learning ("Noron") and the Young Learning ("Soron").

These factional splits were often driven by questions of royal succession or appropriate royal conduct. For example, the split between the Northerners and Southerners was driven by questions involving the proper successor to Seonjo, who had no legitimate son. The Northerners came to support the Gwanghaegun; accordingly, they flourished under his reign (1608-1623) but were swept from power by the Westerners after the succession of Injo.

Under the reigns of Yeongjo and Jeongjo in the 18th century, the kings pursued a strict politcy of equality, favoring no faction over another. [Lee (1984), p. 223.] However, in Jeongjo's reign strife re-emerged between the Byeokpa and Sipa, two groups which cut across the earlier factions and differed in their attitudes towards Yeongjo's murder of his son, who was also Jeongjo's father. In the 19th century, the playing field shifted once more, and in-law families rather than scholarly factions came to dominate the throne. For most of the 19th century, the Jangdong branch of the Andong Kim lineage was in control of the government; however, there was a brief interlude in which control shifted to the Pungyang Cho.

Village "Seowon", which combined the function of Confucian shrines with educational institutions, often reflected the factional alignment of the local elites. In areas where the Western faction predominated, key figures of Westerner thought such as were enshrined.

Purges

Purges were often violent, leading to the execution and internal exile of many members of the losing side. In some cases even the graves of their ancestors were desecrated.

Rebellions

The most famous rebellions took place in the 19th century, as the social system of Joseon was beginning to collapse: the rebellion of Hong Gyeong-nae in the northern provinces in 1811, the mutiny of 1882, and the Donghak uprising of 1894-1895.

Occasional rebellions also took place among the country's small ethnic minorities. The Tungusic tribes of the northeast rose in 1583 under Nitanggae and seized a number of towns; they were put down by the general Shin Rip. Thereafter markets were established in the region to help supply the tribesmen with needed goods. [Lee (1984), p. 193.] In 1510, Japanese merchants and settlers had risen in rebellion against a local commander; this was followed by the expulsion of all Japanese and the closure of the ports for two years. After the Seven Year War, Japanese access to the country was sharply constrained, and such incidents ceased to occur.

Diplomacy

Joseon's international relations were dominated by its relationship to the Ming and Qing dynasties of China, and by the Neo-Confucian ideal of "serving the great" ("sadae"). Joseon typically saw itself as a loyal and exemplary, but internally sovereign vassal of China. Three embassies were sent to Beijing in normal years, and more when there was a special occasion such as a royal marriage or the designation of an heir.

On a lower level, the country maintained ties with various neighboring nations, including the Jurchen tribes of the north and the Japanese and Ryūkyū states across the sea. To this end, interpreting schools were set up in the capital and in border towns such as Jeju and Busan.

The Joseon Dynasty endured two major invasions prior its progressive loss of sovereignty in the late 19th century. These were the Seven Year War, a two-stage Japanese invasion led by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in the 1590s, and the First and Second Manchu invasions in the early 17th century. Although the Japanese were ultimately repelled, Joseon was compelled to surrender to the Manchus, who later became the Qing Dynasty.

After the Treaty of Ganghwa (which extinguished the tradional relationship with China) and the opening of the ports in 1876, the diplomatic approach changed, and the government of Joseon began to enter into diplomatic relations with both neighboring and European countries.

Notes

ee also

*List of Korea-related topics
*Korean Confucianism
*History of Korea
*Political factions in Joseon Dynasty