Output TransformerLess

= Output TransformerLess (audio amplifier) =

In the larger scope of vacuum tube audio amplifiers Output TransformerLess (OTL) describes a specific subset of audio power amplifier topologies, all of which have a single common attribute: unlike conventional vacuum tube designs, OTLs do not rely upon an output transformer to couple the amplifier's output stage to the loudspeaker. In the absence of an output transformer, one of two primary methods are employed to facilitate output stage coupling: "direct" ("DC") coupling or "capacitive" ("AC") coupling.

Additional definitions

There is some contention among those skilled in the art with respect to applying the broader term "OTL" to capacitively coupled designs and variants. The need to delineate these designs from their directly coupled counterparts has led to the informal adoption of several additional terms, including:

* OCL (Output CapacitorLess) - which distinguishes OTL designs lacking an output coupling capacitor (directly coupled)
* DC-OTL - which denotes a directly coupled design; synonymous with OCL
* AC-OTL - which denotes an AC (capacitively) coupled design
* Z-OTL - which denotes a small class of variants

Abuse and misuse of the term "OTL"

The term "Output TransformerLess" (being subtractive) is inherently problematic, in that it attempts to define a class of equipment based upon something which it lacks. Virtually any piece of audio equipment, with the exception of conventional vacuum tube amplifiers, may be described as "Output TransformerLess". However, it has been generally understood for the last several decades that 'OTL' refers to a "vacuum tube" (as opposed to solid state) "power amplifier" which lacks a conventional "output transformer". This weakness in the definition has led to occasional abuse of the term, though informed persons are unlikely to be deceived by such misuse.

Differentiation of designs

By coupling methods: direct versus capacitive coupling and variants

Background: The output coupling method of a vacuum tube amplifier generally serves two basic purposes:

* Negation (blocking) of DC voltages in the output section to prevent a damaging flow of direct electrical current through the loudspeaker.
* Matching the relatively high impedance of the vacuum tube output section to the relatively low impedance of the loudspeaker.

Direct coupled designs

In direct coupled OTL designs, both the necessary blocking of DC and matching of impedances are accomplished, respectively, through the topology of the amplifier's output section and the selection of vacuum tube types with sufficiently low impedance to allow effective power transfer to the loudspeaker. Typically, direct coupled OTL amplifiers will have a user-adjustable DC offset control, which allows the user to trim off any residual DC voltage residing at the amplifier's output terminals prior to operation.

Capacitively coupled designs

Like the direct coupled designs, capacitively coupled designs rely on the selection of tube types with a sufficiently low impedance to effect the transfer of power to the loudspeaker. However, unlike direct coupled designs, capacitively coupled designs do not have inherent DC blocking by virtue of their topology. Instead, DC voltage in the output section is blocked by an "output coupling capacitor" - typically a large-value (3000-6000μF) electrolytic capacitor - which is interjected between the amplifier's output section and the loudspeaker.

Variants

While the vast majority of designs in service can be clearly designated as directly or capacitively coupled, there are some rare, novel exceptions which may defy definition in standard terms. These designs employ what would appear to be a type of transformer at the output, but due to the atypical design and operation of this output coupling device (transformer), these designs are currently included in the larger group of OTL amplifiers.

Among engineers, designers and enthusiasts there is continuing and often lively debate on this subject and, as of yet, no firm technical consensus exists as to how these designs should be classified.

By output section topology:

There are several practical approaches to the design of an OTL amplifier's output section, each with their own respective strengths and weaknesses. While certain topologies lend themselves well to direct coupling, others are more suitable for capacitive coupling. The various designs in service may thus be grouped based upon their common output section topologies. Common topologies include:

* "Futterman" type and variants (Examples: Counterpoint, Fourier, Julius Futterman, New York Audio Labs (NYAL), Prodigy Audio Labs., Silvaweld et al.)
* "Circlotron" type (Examples: Atma-Sphere Music Systems, Joule Electra, Tenor et al.)
* "Totem-pole" type (Many examples)
* "H-bridge" type (Few examples)
* "Single-ended" type (Examples: Transcendent Sound SE-OTL, various low-power headphone amplifiers)