Transnational marriage

A transnational marriage is a marriage between two people from different countries. A variety of special issues arise in marriages between people from different countries, including those related to citizenship and culture, which add complexity and challenges to these kinds of relationships.

In an age of increasing globalization, where an increasing number of people have ties to or networks of people, family, and places across the globe, rather than to a current geographic location, people seem also to be increasingly marrying across national boundaries causing conflicts. Transnational marriage is a by-product of the movement and migration of people and may they have to get citizenship to whole new countries and/or boundries.

Transnational marriage may occur when someone from one country visits or lives in another country for school, work, political asylum, refuge, or due to parents doing the above. When the person reaches an age or point at which he or she desires to marry, that person has several options. In general terms, those options include::*Becoming attracted to a citizen of one's host country and marrying them. This is usually a cross-cultural marriage, although there are times in which that citizen may be an immigrant from the same culture, but just has become a citizen of the host country. Marrying a citizen of the host country may help the person then become a citizen of that land and stay there permanently. However, sometimes the host culture is the one with which the person identifies, and thus desires to marry someone of that culture rather than someone from the "home" culture.:*Becoming attracted to and marrying a citizen of yet another country who is also visiting or living in the host country. :*Having become a citizen of the host country, the person may go back to their homeland, marry a person deemed proper by their family or culture, sometimes through arranged marriage, and then return to country in which they are a citizen. This may come as a result of missing home, family, and culture, and desiring to have such in one's life. One may then bring one's spouse home through family reunification provisions in immigration law.:*Being a traveler or used to living amidst many different cultures, a person might marry someone who has the shared experience of living amidst different cultures, regardless of citizenship. One term to label such people is the term Third Culture Kids.

Obstacles to transnational marriages:
*Citizenship of two or more nations - either one spouse has to change citizenship or become a dual citizen. Changing one citizenship can be a long process, and for some an ordeal, of negotiating the laws of a nation that may change suddenly for economic or political reasons.
*Culture - Learning how to live and function with someone is a process and may be harder when some or many of the assumptions and habits one operates upon without thinking clashes with those of one's spouse.
*Language

History

Throughout history there have been some transnational marriages, with accompanying reasons and reactions for and against such marriages. In more ancient times, marriages between people of distinctly different tribes and nations were due to royalty trying to form alliances or influence another kingdom, marauders or people without many other resources capturing slaves and sometimes marrying them, or one group living near another people group and adapting to their ways. More recently, transnational marriages are due to globalization, with migration of labor and capital, increased communication, and many more situations and cities where foreigners come in contact with each other. It is known more now due to strictly defined national borders but with fewer restrictions on keeping class and tribal separations. If one shares values that transcend culture, then it is easier to get married across cultures.

However, there are many barriers and restrictions to cross-cultural, inter-tribal or racial, and particularly transnational marriages. People tend to marry those similar to them, some even preferring to marry first cousins, whom they trust. In an interesting twist, transnational arranged marriage between cousins or relatives has been occurring more often with migration and family reunification policies, as people still want their culture and family when marrying even in a distant place.

To begin a discussion on attitudes towards transnational marriage, the Bible and the Laws of Manu are two religious historical documents that record how some people behaved in antiquity. In the Bible, the LORD warns the Israelites not to marry people from other nations, because they would most likely start worshipping their gods and forsake the LORD (Exodus 34:16, Deuteronomy 7:3-4). However, there are some instances when transnational marriages took place, such as Joseph being given Egyptian wives by Pharaoh, Rahab of Jericho marrying one of the Israelite spies she hid, Ruth the Moabite taking care of her mother-in-law Naomi, and King Solomon marrying Pharaoh's daughter, as well as many other foreign wives. King Solomon married to make alliances and keep peace, and the others because they lived by each other. However, the difference in reaction to the transnational marriages is how the newcomers responded to the Lord [cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=11&chapter=9&version=31|title=1 Kings 9|work=New International Version|publisher=Bible Gateway|accessdate=2008-07-16] . King Solomon suffered the consequences when he betrayed the Lord by facilitating his wives being able to worship their own gods in Israel and then worshipped along with them. Intermarriage was discouraged if there was any difference in religious practice or belief [cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=11&chapter=11&version=31&context=chapter|title=1 Kings 11|work=New International Version|publisher=Bible Gateway|accessdate=2008-07-16] . The book of Ezra, the prophet, tells about a response of the Jewish exiles to either separate from their foreign wives they had married in Babylon or be separated from the community of exiles when the exiles were trying to turn back to the Lord [cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%2034:16;%20Deuteronomy%207:3,4;%201%20Chronicles%2023:22;%20Ezra%209:1,2,12;|title=Exodus 34:16; Deuteronomy 7:3-4; 1 Chronicles 23:22; Ezra 9:1-2 &12|work=New International Version|publisher=Bible Gateway|accessdate=2008-07-16] .

The Laws of Manu [ Buhler, Georg (1969) "The Laws of Manu." Translated with extracts from seven commentaries by Georg Buhler, Volume 25 in the Sacred Books of the East edited by F. Max Muller volume XXV, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 75-83, 401-429.] , a religious document for the Indo-Aryan Brahmins invading India, speaks of how to keep oneself clean but also intermarry with the indigenous peoples in order to create a caste system. A Nepali anthropologist writes on how a Brahmin man might marry four wives of different castes, and keep all the eating and living quarters of his different caste wives and children separate. His children and grandchildren born to women of lower castes will have even lower status and not be taught the laws. The only social mobility is downward. [ "There are also special differences in socialization for the children of mixed Bahun-Matwali marriages, the source of most of those in the Chhetri caste. ... The mixed household may include at least three castes, if not more, having wives from Bahun, Chhetri, and Matwali castes, who must remain restricted to their appropriate areas. The father, then, eats in a separate area from the children, who eat in a separate area from the mother. ... The family is thus strongly divided along caste lines. The mother, here, is even more disparaged than in the purely Bahun family. She is Matwali; not only a source of potential pollution, but the cause for lowered, Chhetri, status of the son of a Bahun (1992: 74-75)" Bista, Dor Bahadur. "Fatalism and Development: Nepal's Struggle for Modernization" Hyderabad or Calcutta, India: Orient Longman Limited. 1991, Reprinted 1992. ] Similarly, although no longer specifically due to transnational marriage, the interracial sexual contact in the Americas produced a system that defined social status by skin color, and is still followed by some people, but in particular those whom it subjugated . People would marry those with lighter skin color to keep their social status and were against marrying anyone of "lower" status, particularly around the time of belief that certain people were of a superior race than others [ (personal experience, anecdotes, and reading but need citation)] .

A slightly different perspective of interracial or transnational marriage is from those who tend to marry their cousins, sometimes even first cousins. They do so in order keep the family together socially and economically, and thus disproving of marriage outside. Recently, this practice has become technically transnational due to differences in citizenship, even though the people are still family. An example of transnational marriage that kept the family together was among European royalty. Queen Victoria's grandchildren were all over Europe, keeping the royalty together. Queen Victoria is referred to as the "grandmother of Europe." However, some alliances were to their detriment, as due to them, they had to go to war in World War I. More recent examples are from a mass migration from the less developed regions of the world to the more developed regions, helped by the policies of family reunification. A fairly common practice among South Asian immigrants to the UK or USA is to have arranged marriages to someone back "home," in order to keep culture and traditions within their family.cite journal|last=Shaw|first=Alison|date=June 2006|title=The arranged transnational cousin marriages of British Pakistanis: critique, dissent and cultural continuity|journal=Contemporary South Asia|volume=15|issue=2|pages=209–20|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/ccsa/2006/00000015/00000002|accessdate=2008-07-16|doi=10.1080/09584930600955317] cite journal|last=Charsley|first=Katherine|coauthors=Shaw, Alison|date=October 2006|title=South Asian transnational marriages in comparative perspective|journal=Global Networks: a Journal of Transnational Affairs|volume=6|issue=4|pages=331–44|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/glob/2006/00000006/00000004/art00001|accessdate=2008-07-16|doi=10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00147.x]

Even today, there is a mixed reaction to transnational marriage, especially as it continues to grow. Family reunification policies have some people in host countries upset, as people are less likely to assimilate if they keep on marrying people from their home countries, and thus keeping their cultures alive in the host culturescite web|url=http://www.migrationwatchuk.com/Briefingpapers/other/transnational_marriage.asp|title=Transnational marriage and the formation of Ghettoes|date=2005-09-22|publisher=Migration Watch UK|accessdate=2008-07-16] . Others are suspicious of transnational marriages, as they think the non-citizen spouse is just getting married to obtain legal status in the host country. "Ex-US Immigration Employee, Sister Admits Fake Marriages Scheme" Immigration Link Fall 2007 Vol. 3 No. 3 [http://www.spar-bernstein.com Law Offices of Spar & Bernstein] Dead link|date=July 2008] Still others find their families torn apart if one spouse happens to not have all the legal papers or commits a crime and thus is detained for indefinite amounts of time or deported."Police Officer, Wife Live In Fear, Uncertainty About Deportation" Immigration Link Fall 2007 Vol. 3 No.3 [http://www.spar-bernstein.com Law Offices of Spar & Bernstein] Dead link|date=July 2008] There are many legal barriers and hurdles to cross first to have a transnational marriage and then to be allowed to remain living together in the same country.

Yet, due to the increase in migration and communication, immigrants maintain contacts with families in the previous country, or possibly who have migrated and settled all over the globe. For instance, Afghan refugees have lived in Pakistan, Iran, Germany, Indonesia, the United States, and other parts of the globe. Persons working for government, non-governmental organizations, aid or development organizations, or international companies may take their families with them. Their children grow up in different lands, learning the different cultures, often feeling more at home in the host country than their "home" country. These children, called Third Culture Kids tend to feel the most affinity to those who have also lived in more than one country and culture, and thus tend to marry people of diverse backgrounds, regardless of nationality and citizenshipcite book|last=Pollock|first=David C.|coauthors=Van Reken, Ruth E.|title=Third Culture Kids: The Experience of Growing Up Among Worlds|publisher=Nicholas Brealey Publishing|location=London|date=2001-05-25|edition=2nd revised|isbn=1-85788-295-4|accessdate=2008-07-16] .

Some do not even need to live in a certain place a long time to decide to have a transnational marriage. Traveling has resulted in transnational relationships, marriages, and even families, although it is not known how common such results are. A New York Times article mentions how someone married due to a new way to travel which is called couch surfing. Couch surfing, sleeping on couches in various homes, is a way for people to stay cheaply and actually see homes and lives when visiting a strange place [cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/20/garden/20couch.html|title=Surfing the World Wide Couch|last=Green|first=Penelope|date=2007-09-20|work=Home & Garden|publisher=The New York Times|pages=Section F; p. 1|accessdate=2008-07-16] .

Transnational marriage has had both negative and positive reactions to it throughout history. It has always existed to some extent but is fast becoming more common in the age of globalization, mass migration, multi-ethnic nations, and cultural pluralism.

One Debate: Should National Laws Discourage or Encourage Transnational Marriage?

Currently, it is hard to have a transnational marriage. There are many barriers, particularly if the husband is the foreignercite book|title=Transnational Social Spaces: Agents, Networks and Institutions|editor=Faist, Thomas and Ozveren, Eyüp |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|date=2004-08-30|isbn=0754632911|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SmFwL3XZTf0C|accessdate=2008-07-16] [cite web|url=http://www.expat.or.id/info/mixmarriages.html|title=Mixed Marriages: Indonesians and Expatriates|publisher=Living in Indonesia|accessdate=2008-07-16] . As a result of increasing transnational marriage, policy makers in various countries are starting to consider whether they should discourage or encourage transnational marriage.

The grounds given for discouraging transnational marriage are that:
* False marriages occur just for people to gain citizenship or conduct human traffickingcite book|last=Cohen|first=Erik|title=Transnational Marriage in Thailand: The Dynamics of Extreme Heterogamy|editor=Bauer, Thomas G. and McKercher, Bob|publisher=Haworth Press|date=2003|series=Sex and Tourism: Journeys of Romance, Love, and Lust|pages=57-80|chapter=5|isbn=0789012030|url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=AfLOZUWx7rYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA57&dq=transnational+marriage+and+citizenship&ots=fVCAVJlkCO&sig=uRXRKozB2d4FkHi--774v1HcMiM#PPA79,M1|accessdate=2008-07-16] .
* The marriages are cross-cultural and thus children or spouses may not be as loyal or patriotic to the new country.
* There is a lack of assimilation and creation of ghettos if second and third generation immigrants are still marrying persons from the country of their ancestors.

The grounds given for encouraging transnational marriage are that:
* Transnational marriage reconnects extended families or even persons of similar backgrounds that are living all over the globe
* It helps relations between countries by strengthening trade and contact, or in case of war, enables one country to know more about the other (case of Kibei or Japanese-Americans during WWII)
* People are increasingly marrying across national boundaries and harsh laws just tear families apart [cite journal|last=Constable|first=N. |date=April-June 2003|title= A Transnational Perspective on Divorce and Marriage: Filipina Wives and Workers|journal=Identities: Global Studies in Power and Culture|publisher=Routledge, Part of the Taylor & Francis Group|volume=10|issue=2|pages=163–80|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/gide/2003/00000010/00000002/art00002#aff_1|accessdate=2008-07-16|doi=10.1080/10702890304328] .

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