Philosophy of Max Stirner

The philosophy of Max Stirner is credited as an influence on the development of nihilism, existentialism, post-modernism and anarchism, especially of individualist anarchism and postanarchism. Stirner's main philosophical work was "The Ego and Its Own", also known as "The Ego and His Own" ("Der Einzige und sein Eigentum" in German, which translates literally as "The Individual and his Property").

Stirner's philosophy has been cited as an influence on both his contemporaries, notably Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx as well as subsequent thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, [The possible influence on Nietzsche was a heavily disputed topic around 1900 and recently again. For a summary and a fresh view see [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html Bernd A. Laska: Nietzsche's initial crisis] (2002); See also] Enrico Arrigoni, Steven T. Byington, Benjamin R. Tucker and Saul Newman.

Anarchist?

Max Stirner was a philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically-orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism." [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/max-stirner/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry for Max Stirner] ] In 1844, his "The Ego and Its Own" ("Der Einzige und sein Eigentum" which may literally be translated as "The Unique Individual and His Property" [Moggach, Douglas. The New Hegelians. Cambridge University Press. p. 177] ) was published, which is considered to be "a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism." Stirner proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions—including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society—were mere illusions or "ghosts" in the mind, saying of society that "the individuals are its reality." Stirner wants to "abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members." [Heider, Ulrike. "Anarchism: Left, Right and Green", San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1994, pp. 95-96]

He advocated egoism and a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so. For him, property simply comes about through might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." And, "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." He says, "I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property!" [Stirner, Max. The Ego and Its Own, p. 248] Stirner considers the world and everything in it, including other persons, available to one's taking or use without moral constraint Fact|date=July 2008 —that rights do not exist in regard to objects at all. He sees no rationality in taking the interests of others into account unless doing so furthers one's self-interest, which he believes is the only legitimate reason for acting. His embrace of egoism is in stark contrast to Godwin's altruism. He denies society as being an actual entity, calling society a "spook" and that "the individuals are its reality" ("The Ego and Its Own").

It should also be noted that Stirner, although an Individualist Anarchist in social philosophyFact|date=April 2007 never mentions markets and he did not believe it is a matter of moral right, but simply a matter of control. "I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property!" [Stirner, Max. The Ego and Its Own, p. 248] Stirner never referred to markets and his philosophy on property causes problems for a market system, because according to proponents of markets property is not considered to be legitimate if taken by force. Stirner was opposed to communism, seeing it as a form of authority over the individual. He said in "The Ego and Its Own":cquote|"All attempts to enact rational laws about property have put out from the bay of "love" into a desolate sea of regulations. Even Socialism and Communism cannot be excepted from this. Everyone one is to be provided with adequate means, for which it is little to the point whether one socialistically finds them still in a personal property, or communistically draws them from a community of goods. The individual's mind in this remains the same; it remains a mind of dependence. The distributing "board of equity" lets me have only what the sense of equity, its "loving" care for all, prescribes. For me, the individual, there lies no less of a check in collective wealth than in that of "individual others"; neither that is mind, nor this: whether the wealth belongs to the collectivity, which confers part of it on me, or to individual possessors, is for me the same constraint, as I cannot decide about either of the two. One the Contrary, Communism, by the abolition of all personal property, only presses me back still more into dependence on another, "viz.", on the generality or collectivity; and, loudly as it always attacks the "State," what it intends is itself again a State, a "status", a condition hindering my free movement, a sovereign power over me. Communism rightly revolts against the pressure I experience from individual proprietors; but still more horrible is the might that it puts in the hands of the collectivity. Egoism takes another way to root out the non-possessing rabble. It does not say: Wait for what the board of equity will - bestow on you in the name of the collectivity (for such bestowal took place in "States" from the most ancient times, each receiving "according to his desert," and therefore according to the measure in which each was able to "deserve" it, to acquire it by "service"), but: Take hold, and take what you require! With this the war of all against all is declared. "I" alone decide what I will have." [Max Stirner. Ego and Its Own. Rebel Press 1982. p. 257]

This position on property is much different from the native American, natural law, form of individualist anarchism, which defends the inviolability of the private property that has been earned through labor. [Weir, David. Anarchy & Culture. University of Massachusetts Press. 1997. p. 146] However, in 1886 Benjamin Tucker rejected the natural rights philosophy and adopted Stirner's egoism, with several others joining with him. This split the American individualists into fierce debate, "with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself." [McElroy, Wendy. [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LiteratureOfLiberty0352/0353-15_1981v3.html Benjamin Tucker, Individualism, & Liberty: Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order] . LITERATURE OF LIBERTY: A REVIEW OF CONTEMPORARY LIBERAL THOUGHT (1978-1982). Institute for Human Studies. Autumn 1981, VOL. IV, NO. 3] Other Egoists include James L. Walker, Sidney Parker, and Dora Marsden.

However, it should be noted that Stirner's philosophy has also influenced some libertarian communists and anarcho-communists. [For Ourselves, " [http://thinkerforum.com/uploads/right_to_be_greedy.pdf The Right to Be Greedy: Theses On The Practical Necessity Of Demanding Everything] ", 1974.] Forms of libertarian communism such as Situationism are strongly Egoist in nature. [see, for example, Christopher Gray, "Leaving the Twentieth Century", p. 88.] Anarcho-communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own, as shown in books of hers such as "Anarchism And Other Essays". [Emma Goldman, "Anarchism and Other Essays", p. 50.]

Egoism

Stirner has been broadly understood as a proponent of both psychological egoism and ethical egoism, although the latter position can be disputed, as there is no claim in Stirner's writing, in which one 'ought to' pursue one's own interest, and further claiming any 'ought' could be seen as a new 'fixed idea'. However, he may be understood as a rational egoist in the sense that he considered it irrational not to act in one's self interest.

Individual self-realization rests on each individual's desire to fulfill their egoism. The difference between an unwilling and a willing egoist, is that the former will be 'possessed' by an empty idea and believe that they are fulfilling a higher cause, but usually being unaware that they are only fulfilling their own desires to be happy or secure, and the latter, in contrast, will be a person that is able to freely choose its actions, fully aware that they are only fulfilling individual desires.Quotation|Sacred things exist only for the egoist who does not acknowledge himself, the "involuntary egoist" ... in short, for the egoist who would like not to be an egoist, and abases himself (combats his egoism), but at the same time abases himself only for the sake of "being exalted", and therefore of gratifying his egoism. Because he would like to cease to be an egoist, he looks about in heaven and earth for higher beings to serve and sacrifice himself to; but, however much he shakes and disciplines himself, in the end he does all for his own sake... [on] this account I call him the involuntary egoist....As you are each instant, you are your own creature in this very 'creature' you do not wish to lose yourself, the creator. You are yourself a higher being than you are, and surpass yourself ... just this, as an involuntary egoist, you fail to recognize; and therefore the 'higher essence' is to you — an alien essence. ... Alienness is a criterion of the "sacred". [Ibidem, Cambridge edition, p. 37-8] The contrast is also expressed in terms of the difference between the voluntary egoist being the possessor of his concepts as opposed to being possessed. Only when one realizes that all sacred truths such as law, right, morality, religion etc., are nothing other than artificial concepts, and not to be obeyed, can one act freely. For Stirner, to be free is to be both one's own "creature" (in the sense of 'creation') and one's own "creator" (dislocating the traditional role assigned to the gods).To Stirner power is the method of egoism. It is the only justified method of gaining 'property'.

Even love is explained as "consciously egoistic": quotation| ... [Love] cuts no better figure than any other passion [if] I obey [it] blindly. The ambitious man, who is carried away by ambition... has let this passion grow up into a despot against whom he abandons all power of dissolution; he has given up himself because he cannot "dissolve" himself, and consequently cannot absolve himself from the passion: he is possessed. - I love men, too, not merely individuals, but every one. But I love them with the consciousness of my egoism; I love them because love makes "me" happy, I love because loving is natural to me, it pleases me. I know no 'commandment of love'. I have a "fellow-feeling" with every feeling being, and their torment torments, their refreshment refreshes me too... [Ibidem, p. 258]

However, Stirner cautioned against any reification of the Egoist or subject:

Property

For Stirner, property simply comes about through might: "Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property." "What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." He says, "I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property!" [Stirner, Max. The Ego and Its Own, p. 248] . This position on property is much different from the preceding native American, natural law, form of individualist anarchism, which defends the inviolability of the private property that has been earned through labour. [Weir, David. Anarchy & Culture. University of Massachusetts Press. 1997. p. 146] However, American individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker rejected the natural rights philosophy and adopted Stirner's egoism 1886, with several others joining with him.

Dogma

The passages quoted above show the few points of contact between Stirner's philosophy and early Christianity. It is merely Jesus as an "annihilator" of the established biases and preconceptions of Rome that Stirner can relate to. His reason for "citing" the cultural change sparked by Jesus, is that he wants the Christian ideologies of 19th Century Europe to collapse, much as the ideology of heathen Rome did before it (e.g., " [the Christian era] will end with the casting off of the ideal, with 'contempt for the spirit'", p. 320). As with the Classical Skeptics before him, Stirner's method of self-liberation is opposed to faith or belief; he envisions a life free from "dogmatic presuppositions" (p. 135, 309) or any "fixed standpoint" (p. 295). It is not merely Christian dogma that his thought repudiates, but also a wide variety of European atheist ideologies that are condemned as crypto-Christian for putting ideas in an equivalent role:Quotation|Among many transformations, the Holy Spirit became in time the 'absolute idea' [in Hegelian philosophy] , which again in manifold refractions split into the different ideas of philanthropy, reasonableness, civic virtue, and so on. [...] Antiquity, at its close, had gained its ownership of the world only when it had broken the world's overpoweringness and 'divinity', recognised the world's powerlessness and 'vanity'. [...] [The philosophers of our time say] Concepts are to decide everywhere, concepts to regulate life, concepts to rule. This is the religious world [of our time] , to which Hegel gave a systematic expression, bringing method into the nonsense and completing the conceptual precepts into a rounded, firmly-based dogmatic. Everything is sung according to concepts and the real man, I, am compelled to live according to these conceptual laws. [...]
Liberalism simply replaced Christian concepts with humanist ones; human instead of divine, political instead of ecclesiastical, 'scientific' instead of doctrinal etc. ...."|Max Stirner|The Ego and Its Own p. 87-8] What Stirner proposes is not that concepts should rule people, but that people should rule concepts. The "nothingness" of all truth is rooted in the "nothingness" of the self, because the ego is the criterion of (dogmatic) truth. Again, Stirner seems closely comparable to the Skeptics in that his radical epistemology directs us to emphasise empirical experience (the "unmediated" relationship of mind as world, and world as mind) but leaves only a very limited validity to the category of "truth". When we regard the impressions of the senses with detachment, simply for what they are (e.g., neither good nor evil), we may still correctly assign truth to them.In place of such systems of beliefs, Stirner presents a detached life of non-dogmatic, open-minded engagement with the world "as it is" (unpolluted by "faith" of any kind, Christian or humanist), coupled with the awareness that there is no soul, no personal essence of any kind, but that the individual's uniqueness consists solely in its "creative nothingness" prior to all concepts.

The Self

Stirner's concept of the self is something impossible to fully comprehend; a so-called 'creative nothing' he later described as an 'end-point of language'.

In order to understand this 'creative nothing', Stirner uses poetry and vivid imagery. The 'creative nothing' by its dialectical shortcomings creates the need for a description, for meaning.

Stirner elaborated this attempt to describe the indescribable in the essay "Stirner's Critics", written by Stirner in response to Feuerbach and others (in custom with the time, he refers to himself in the third person) :"The Ego and Its Own" opens and closes with a quotation from Goethe that reads "I have taken up my cause without foundation", with the unstated next line of the poem being "…and all the world is mine". One of Stirner's central ideas is that in realizing the self is "nothing" one is said to "own the world", because as the book states in its last line: "all things are nothing to me" [Ibidem., p. 324] . David Leopold (in his introduction to the Cambridge University Press Edition of The Ego and its own) expresses disbelief at what Stirner has to say about the nature of mind, world, and property. Both the belief in the self being "nothing" and that "the world is empty" have no similar Western precedent. But in Eastern Philosophy Theravada Buddhism has comparable aspects: Stirner describes this world-view, in brief, as "enjoyment", and he claims that the "nothingness" of the non-self is "unutterable" (p. 314) or "unnameable" (p. 132), "unspeakable" yet "a mere word" (p. 164; cf. Stirner's comments on the Skeptic concepts ataraxia and aphasia, p. 26).

The insurrectionist and anti-revolutionary

Stirner mocks revolution in the traditional sense, and ridicules social movements aimed at overturning the state as tacitly statist (i.e., aimed at the establishment of a new state thereafter). To illustrate this he compares his own social and moral role with that of Jesus Christ:As Stirner specifies in a footnote (p. 280), he was here using the word insurgent "in its etymological sense"; thus, to rise above the religion and government of one's own times and to take control of ones life with no consideration of them, but not necessarily to overthrow them. This contrasts with the method of the revolutionary who brings about a change of conditions by displacing one government with another:Quotation|The revolution aimed at new arrangements; insurrection leads us no longer to let ourselves be arranged, but to arrange ourselves, and sets no glittering hopes on 'institutions'. It is not a fight against the established [...] it is only a working forth of me out of the established. [...] Now, as my object is not an overthrow of the established order but my elevation above it, my purpose and deed are not political or social but (as directed toward myself and my ownness alone) an egoistic purpose indeed. ...."|Max Stirner|The Ego and Its Own p. 280] Stirner was writing about people liberating themselves from their own limits and rising above limiting social, political and ideological conditions, and for each to walk their own way. The passages quoted above are clearly incompatible with David Leopold's conclusion (in his introduction to the Cambridge University Press edition) that Stirner "...saw humankind as 'fretted in dark superstition' but denied that he sought their enlightenment and welfare" (Ibidem, p. xxxii). Stirner refused to describe himself as directly liberating others. But his stated purpose in these quotations seems to be to achieve the "enlightenment and welfare" of others by way of demonstration and "insurrection" as he defines it.

Hegel's influence

Scholars such as Karl Löwith and Lawrence Stepelevich have argued that Hegel was a major influence on "The Ego and Its Own"Fact|date=February 2007. Stepelevich argues, that while "The Ego and its Own" evidently has an "un-Hegelian structure and tone to the work as a whole", as well as being fundamentally hostile to Hegel's conclusions about the self and the world, this does not mean that Hegel had no effect on Stirner.

To go beyond and against Hegel in true dialectical fashion is in some way continuing Hegel's project, and Stepelevich argues that this effort of Stirner's is, in fact a completion of Hegel's projectFact|date=February 2007 . Stepelevich concludes his argument referring to Jean Hyppolite, who in summing up the intention of Hegel's "Phenomenology", stated: "The history of the world is finished; all that is needed is for the specific individual to rediscover it in himself."

Notes

See also

* Relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner

External links

General

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/max-stirner/ Max Stirner in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] , an extensive introduction to Stirner's philosophy
* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/enm.html Max Stirner within LSR – a paraphilosophical project] original texts, articles in several languages
* [http://www.nonserviam.com/stirner/ Svein Olav Nybergs website on Max Stirner] , with extensive links to texts and references
* [http://www.projektmaxstirner.de/project.htm Max Stirner Project by H. Ibrahim Türkdogan]
* [http://www.nonserviam.com/magazine/ Non Serviam] , Internet periodical dedicated to Stirner's ideas

Criticism and influence

* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/eninnuce.html Max Stirner, a durable dissident] , 'How Marx and Nietzsche suppressed their colleague Max Stirner and why he has intellectually survived them'
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch03d.htm#c.1.5 "Stirner Delighted in His Construction"] — "loves miracles, but can only perform a logical miracle," by Karl Marx
* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html Nietzsche's initial crisis] due to an encounter with Stirner's "The Ego", by Bernd A. Laska (2002)
* [http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/maxundhegel.shtml Max Stirner As Hegelian] , By Lawrence S. Stepelevich

Texts

* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msee.html The complete original text in German of "Der Einzige und sein Eigentum"]
* [http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/teaho/theego0.html The complete English edition of "The Ego and his Own"] , in the translation of Steven T. Byington.
* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/enrec.html Recensenten Stirners / Stirner's Critics] bilingual: full text in German / abridged text in English (trans. Frederick M. Gordon)