Ancient Egyptian technology

The characteristics of Ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships, unknown again until modern engineering. Egyptian paper, made from papyrus, and pottery was mass produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The wheel, however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the chariot in the sixteenth century B.C. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses.

Technology in Dynastic Egypt

Significant advances in ancient Egypt during the dynastic period include astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Their geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3,4,5 right triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt also was a center of alchemy research for much of the western world.

Paper and writing

The word "paper" comes from the Greek term for the ancient Egyptian writing material called papyrus, which was formed from beaten strips of papyrus plants. Papyrus was produced as early as 3000 B.C. in Egypt, and sold to ancient Greece and Rome. The establishment of the Library of Alexandria limited the supply of papyrus for others. As a result, according to the Roman historian Pliny (Natural History records, xiii.21), parchment was invented under the patronage of Eumenes II of Pergamon to build his rival library at Pergamon.

Egyptian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system, served as the basis for the Phoenician alphabet from which later alphabets were derived. With this ability, writing and record keeping, the Egyptians developed one of the — if not "the" — first decimal system. [Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers. Page 162 (cf., "As we have seen, Sumer used a sexagesimal base; whereas the system of Ancient Egypt was strictly decimal.")] [Robert E Krebs, Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Page 127. ISBN 0313324336] [Thomas Little Heath, Manual of Greek Mathematics. Page 11.]

The city of Alexandria retained preeminence for its records and scrolls with its library. That ancient library was damaged by fire when it fell under Roman rule,Plutarch, "Life of Caesar" 49.3.] and was destroyed completely by 642 CE. [Abd-el-latif (1203): "the library which 'Amr ibn al-'As burnt with the permission of 'Umar."] ["Europe: A History", p 139. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1996. ISBN 0-19-820171-0] With it, a huge amount of antique literature, history, and knowledge was lost.

tructures and construction

Buildings

Many temples from Ancient Egypt are still standing today. Some are in ruin from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. The Egyptian structures are among the largest constructions ever conceived and built by humans. They constitute one of the most potent and enduring symbols of Ancient Egyptian civilization. Temples and tombs built by a pharaoh famous for her projects, Hatshepsut, were massive and included many colossal statues of her. King Tut's rock-cut tomb in the Valley of the Kings was full of jewellery and antiques. In some late myths, Ptah was identified as the primordial mound and had called creation into being, he was considered the deity of craftsmen, and in particular, of stone-based crafts. Imhotep, who was included in the Egyptian pantheon, was the first documented engineer. [cite web|url=http://whatiscivilengineering.csce.ca/history_engineering.htm|title=What is Civil Engineering: Imhotep]

In Hellenistic Egypt, lighthouse technology was developed, the most famous example being the Lighthouse of Alexandria. Alexandria was a port for the ships that traded the goods manufactured in Egypt or imported into Egypt. A giant cantilevered hoist lifted cargo to and from ships. The lighthouse itself was designed by Sostratus of Cnidus and built in the third century B.C. (between 285 and 247 B.C.) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt, which has since become a peninsula. This lighthouse was renowned in its time and knowledge of it was never lost. A 2006 drawing of it created from the study of many references, is shown at the right.

Monuments

The Nile valley has been the site of one of the most influential civilizations in the world with its architectural monuments, which include the pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx—among the largest and most famous buildings in the world.

The most famous pyramids are the Egyptian pyramids—huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among the largest constructions by humans. Pyramids functioned as tombs for pharaohs. In Ancient Egypt, a pyramid was referred to as "mer", literally "place of ascendance." The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. The base is over thirteen acres in area. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the only one of the seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, although many of the stones used for the finishing purpose have fallen or been removed for use on other structures over the millennia.

The Red Pyramid of Egypt (c.26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c.2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite." The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt, [ [http://www.eeescience.utoledo.edu/Faculty/Harrell/Egypt/Mosques/CAIRO_Rocks_1.htm eeescience utoledo.edu : Cairo Rocks] ] include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer.

The ancient Egyptians had some of the first monumental stone building (such as in Sakkhara). How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick Hunt [ [http://hebsed.home.comcast.net/hunt.htm Arce/Nc Archives ] ] has postulated that the Egyptians used emery shown to have higher hardness on the Mohs scale. Regarding construction, of the various methods possibly used by builders, the lever moved and uplifted obelisks weighing more than 100 tons. Any rigid object that is used with an appropriate fulcrum or pivot point to multiply the mechanical force that can be applied to another object. This is also termed mechanical advantage, and is one example of the principle of moments. The principle of leverage can also be derived using Newton's laws of motion, and modern statics. It is important to notice that the amount of work accomplished is given by force times distance. The lever allows less effort to be expended to move an object a greater distance. For instance, to use a lever to lift a certain unit of weight with an effort of half a unit, the distance from the fulcrum of the spot where force is applied must be twice the distance between the weight and the fulcrum. For example, to halve the effort of lifting a weight resting one metre from the fulcrum, we would need to apply force two metres from the other side of the fulcrum. The amount of work accomplished is always the same and independent of the dimensions of the lever (in an ideal lever). The lever only allows to trade effort for distance. Levers are one of the six simple machines.

Obelisks and pillars

Obelisks were a prominent part of the architecture of the ancient Egyptians, who placed them in pairs at the entrances of temples. In 1911, Encyclopedia Britannica wrote, "The earliest temple obelisk still in position is that of Senwosri I. of the XIIth Dynasty at Heliopolis (68 feet high)". The word "obelisk" is of Greek rather than Egyptian origin because Herodotus, the great traveler, was the first writer to describe the objects. Twenty-seven ancient Egyptian obelisks are known to have survived, plus the "unfinished obelisk" being built by Hatshepsut to celebrate her sixteenth year as pharaoh. It broke while being carved out of the quarry and was abandoned when another one was begun to replace it. The broken one was found at Aswan and provides the only insight into the methods of how they were hewn. The obelisk symbolized the sun deity Ra and during the brief religious reformation of Akhenaten, was said to be a petrified ray of the Aten, the sun disk. It is hypothesized by New York University Egyptologist Patricia Blackwell Gary and "Astronomy" senior editor Richard Talcott that the shapes of the ancient Egyptian pyramid and Obelisk were derived from natural phenomena associated with the sun (the sun-god Ra being the Egyptians' greatest deity). [Patricia Blackwell Gary and Richard Talcott, "Stargazing in Ancient Egypt," "Astronomy", June 2006, pp. 62-67.] It was also thought that the deity existed within the structure. The Egyptians also used pillars extensively.

It is unknown whether the Ancient Egyptians had kites, but a team lead by Mory Gharib raised a 6,900-pound, convert|15|ft|m|sing=on obelisk into vertical position with a kite, a system of pulleys, and a support frame. [http://pr.caltech.edu/media/Press_Releases/PR12164.html Caltech researchers successfully raise obelisk with kite to test theory about ancient pyramids] ] Maureen Clemmons developed the idea that the ancient Egyptian used kites for work. Ramps have been reported as being widely used in Ancient Egypt. A ramp is inclined plane, or a plane surface set at an angle (other than a right angle) against a horizontal surface. The inclined plane permits one to overcome a large resistance by applying a relatively small force through a longer distance than the load is to be raised. In civil engineering the slope (ratio of rise/run) is often referred to as a grade or gradient. An inclined plane is one of the commonly-recognized simple machines.

Navigation & Ship building

The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge to some extent of sail construction. This is governed by the science of aerodynamics. [A primary feature of a properly designed sail is an amount of "draft", caused by curvature of the surface of the sail. When the sail is oriented into the wind, this curvature induces lift, much like the wing of an airplane.] The earliest Egyptian sails were simply placed to catch the wind and push a vessel.Encyclopedia Of International Sports Studies. Page 31] Later Egyptian sails dating to 2400 BCE were built with the recognition that ships could sail against the wind using the side wind. [Technological Choices: Transformation in Material Cultures. Page 410.] Queen Hatshepsut oversaw the preparations and funding of an expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and "with several sails". Various other [http://www.artsales.com/Ancient%20Ships/gEgyptianGalleons.htm instances of Egyptian sailing vessels] exist, also.

Ancient Egyptian had experince with building variety of ships [ [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/shipsandboats.htm Ships and boats in Egypt] ] [ [http://www.solarnavigator.net/ancient_egyptian_boat_building.htm Anceint Egyptian boat building] ] [ [http://www.terraflex.co.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/shipconstruction.htm Shipbuilding in Anceint Egypt] ] . Some of them survive to this day as Khufu Solar ship [ [http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/timelines/topics/solarships.htm Solar ships] ] . The Ships were found in many areas of Egypt as the Abydous Ship [ [http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/abydos.html The Abydos Ship] [http://www.anthro.fsu.edu/people/faculty/ward/ward2006.pdf Sakkara and Abydous Ship Graves] ] [ [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Alley/4482/Abydosboat.html Abydos Boat] ] and remenants of other ships were found near many of the pyramids [ [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/travel/ships.html Ancient Egypt Ships] ] [ [http://homepage.powerup.com.au/~ancient/museum10.htm Ship Minimatures at Egyptian museum] ]

Although quarter rudders were the norm in Nile navigation, the Egyptians were the first to use also stern-mounted rudders.

Irrigation and agriculture

Irrigation as the artificial application of water to the soil was used to some extent in Ancient Egypt, a hydraulic civilization (which entail hydraulic engineering). [Blake L. White, [http://www.strategic-tech.org/images/Egyptian_Engineering_and_Culture.pdf Ancient Egypt Provides an Early Example of How A Society’s Worldview Drives Engineering and the Development of Science] . Strategic Technology Institute. Page 2.] In crop production it is mainly used to replace missing rainfall in periods of drought, as opposed to reliance on direct rainfall (referred to as dryland farming or as rainfed farming).There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural lake of the Fayûm as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons, as the lake swelled annually as caused by the annual flooding of the Nile. [cite web
last =
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Glassworking

Egyptian knowledge of glassmaking was advanced. [ [http://www.lockergnome.com/news/2007/12/17/ancient-egyptian-glassmaking-recreated/ Ancient Egyptian Glassmaking Recreated] . Lockergnome, December 17, 2007] The earliest known glass beads from Egypt were made during the New Kingdom around 1500 BC and were produced in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue beads, which were believed to have magical powers. The Egyptians made small jars and bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound around a bag of sand tied to a rod. The glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together. The glass-covered sand bag was kept in motion until the required shape and thickness was achieved. The rod was allowed to cool, then finally the bag was punctured and the rod removed. The Egyptians also created the first colored glass rods which they used to create colorful beads and decorations. They also worked with cast glass, which was produced by pouring molten glass into a mold, much like iron and the more modern crucible steel. [cite web| url = http://www.unc.edu/courses/rometech/public/content/arts_and_crafts/Susan_Hampton/Roman_Glass.html#Origin%20Myth| title = Glassmaking in Antiquity| accessdate = 2007-03-21| author = Susan Hampton| publisher = The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]

Astronomy

The Egyptians were a practical people and this is reflected in their astronomy [Ronald A Wells, "Archaeoastronomy in Egypt", in Walker, Christopher, Ed "Astronomy before the telescope", British Museum Press, 1996 p.28] in contrast to Babylonia where the first astronomical texts were written in astrological terms. [John Britton and Christopher Walker, Astrology and Astronomy in Mesopotamia, inWalker, Christopher, Ed "Astronomy before the telescope", British Museum Press, 1996 p. 42] Even before Upper and Lower Egypt were unified in 3000 BCE, observations of the night sky had influenced the development of a religion in which many of its principal deities were heavenly bodies. In Lower Egypt, priests built circular mud-brick walls with to make a false horizon where they could mark the position of the sun as it rose at dawn, and then with a plumb-bob note the northern or southern turning points (solstices). This allowed them to discover that the sun disc, personifed as Re, took 365 days to travel from his birthplace at the winter solstice and back to it. Meanwhile in Upper Egypt a lunar calendar was being developed based on the behaviour of the moon and the reappearance of Sirius after its annual absence of about 70 days heliacal rising. [Tyldesley, Joyce, Pyramids: The Real Story Behind Egypt's Ancient Monuments, Viking, 2003, p. 74]

After unification problems with trying to work with two calendars (both depending upon constant observation) led to a merged, simplified civil calendar with twelve 30 day months, three seasons of four months each, plus an extra five days giving a 365 year day but with no way of accounting for the extra quarter day each year. Day and night were split into 24 units each personified by a deity. A sundial found on Seti I's cenotaph with instructions for its use shows us that the daylight hours were at one time split into 10 units, with 12 hours for the night and an hour for the morning and evening twilights. [Neugebauer, Otto, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity Published 1969 Courier Dover p.86] However by Seti I's time day and night were normally divided into 12 hours each, the length of which would vary according to the time of year.

Key to much of this was the movement of the sun god Ra and his annual movement along the horizon at sunrise. Out of Egyptian myths such as those around Ra and the sky goddess Nut came the development of the Egyptian calendar, time keeping, and even concepts of royalty. An astronomical ceiling in the burial chamber of Ramesses VI shows the sun being born from Nut in the morning, travelling along her body during the way and being swallowed at night.

During the Fifth Dynasty six kings built sun temples in honour of Ra. The temple complexes built by Niuserre at Abu Gurab and Userkaf at Abusir have been excavated and have astronomical alignments and the roofs of some of the buildings could have been used by observers to observe the stars and calculate the hours at night and predict the sunrise for religious festivals. [http://home.comcast.net/~hebsed/wells.htm Report of a talk by Dr. Ronald Wells on The Origins of Egyptian Calendars and Their Modern Legacy]

Claims have been made that precession of the equinoxes was known in Ancient Egypt prior to the time of Hipparchus.Fact|date=March 2008 Some buildings in the Karnak temple complex, for instance, were oriented toward the point on the horizon where certain stars rose or set at key times of the year. Because of the precession, the stars in one "constellation" or section of the sky would be seen to be first in the nightly display each night until the precession moved along to the next section being first, with the previously-first constellation below the horizon until the arch was completed. A few centuries later, when precession made the orientations of the buildings obsolete, the temples were rebuilt.

Note however that the observation that a stellar alignment has grown wrong does not necessarily mean that the Egyptians understood or even cared what was going on. For instance, from the Middle Kingdom on they used a table with entries for each month to tell the time of night from the passing of constellations: these went in error after a few centuries because of their calendar and precession, but were copied (with scribal errors) for long after they lost their practical usefulness or possibly the understanding of them.

Medicine

The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document which attempts to describe and analyze the brain: given this, it might be seen as the very beginnings of neuroscience. However, medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology was largely ineffective. [http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf Microsoft Word - Proceedings-2001.doc ] ] According to a paper published by Michael D. Parkins, 72% of 260 medical prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus had no curative elements. [10th Annual Proceedings of the History of Medicine Days [http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf] ] According to Michael D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Egypt and was continued through the Middle Ages, and while the use of animal dung can have curative properties, [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0838/is_n65/ai_12694466] it is not without its risk. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing, tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developing tetanus. [ [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=681065&dopt=Abstract A comparative study of urban and rural tetanus in ... [Int J Epidemiol. 1978 - PubMed Result ] ] Frank J. Snoek wrote that Egyptian medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies which he believes could have been harmful. [ [http://spectrum.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/content/full/14/3/116 The Mind Matters - Snoek 14 (3): 116 - Diabetes Spectrum ] ]

Mummification of the dead was not always practised in Egypt. Once the practice began, an individual was placed at a final resting place through a set of rituals and protocol. The Egyptian funeral was a complex ceremony including various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in honor of the deceased. The poor, who could not afford expensive tombs, were buried in shallow graves in the sand, and because of the arid environment they were often naturally mummified.

Other developments

The Egyptians developed a variety of furniture. There in the lands of ancient Egypt is the first evidence for stools, beds, and tables (such as from the tombs similar to Tutenkhamen's. Recovered Ancient Egyptian furniture includes a third millennium B.C. bed discovered in the Tarkhan Tomb, a c.2550 B.C. gilded set from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres, and a c. 1550 B.C. stool from Thebes.

Some have suggested that the Egyptians had some form of understanding electric phenomena from observing lightning and interacting with electric fish (such as the Malapterurus electricus) or other animals (such as electric eels). [ Heinrich Karl Brugsch-Bey and Henry Danby Seymour, " [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0CJl3KVQupibKmzuADNu17&id=LoiTizgRo9kC A History of Egypt Under the Pharaohs] ". J. Murray, 1881. Page 422. (cf., [... the symbol of a] " 'serpent' is rather a fish, which still serves, in the Coptic language, to designate the electric fish" [...] ) ] The comment about lightning appears to come from a misunderstanding of a text referring to "high poles covered with copper plates" to argue this [Bruno Kolbe, Francis ed Legge, Joseph Skellon, tr., " [http://books.google.com/books?vid=0o90G64Z2FDIyKUsLs9&id=150IAAAAIAAJ An Introduction to Electricity] ". Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1908. 429 pages. Page 391. (cf., " [...] "high poles covered with copper plates and with gilded tops were erected 'to break the stones coming from on high'." J. Dümichen, Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels, Strassburg, 1877")] but Dr. Bolko Stern has written in detail explaining why the copper covered tops of poles (which were lower than the associated pylons) do not relate to electricity or lightning, pointing out that no evidence of anything used to manipulate electricity had been found in Egypt and that this was a magical and not a technical installation. [cite book | last = Stern | first = Bolko | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Ägyptische Kulturgeschichte | publisher = Reprint-Verlag-Leipzig | date = 1896 reprinted 1998 | location = | pages = 106-108 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-3826219085 ]

Those exploring fringe theories of ancient technology have suggested that there were electric lights used in Ancient Egypt. Engineers have constructed a working model based on their interpretation of a relief found in the Hathor temple at the Dendera Temple complex.Krassa, P., and R. Habeck, "Das Licht der Pharaonen.". ISBN 3-548-35657-5 (Tr. "The Light of the Pharaohs")] Authors (such as Peter Krassa and Reinhard Habeck) have produced a basic theory of the device's operation. The standard explanation, however, for the "Dendera light", which comprises three stone reliefs (one single and a double representation) is that the depicted image represents a lotus leaf and flower from which a sacred snake is spawned in accordance with Egyptian mythological beliefs. This sacred snake sometimes is identified as the Milky Way (the snake) in the night sky (the leaf, lotus, or "bulb") that became identified with Hathor because of her similar association in creation.

Later technology in Egypt

Greco-Roman Egypt

Under Hellenistic rule, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of the Hellenistic civilization. The ancient Egyptian city of Rhakotis was renovated as Alexandria, which became the largest city around the Mediterranean Basin. Under Roman rule, Egypt was one of the most prosperous regions of the Roman Empire, with Alexandria being second only to ancient Rome in size.

Ancient Greek technology was often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war. Ancient Roman technology is a set of artifacts and customs which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years.

Arab Egypt

Under Arab rule, Egypt once again became one of the most prosperous regions around the Mediterranean. The Egyptian city of Cairo was founded by the Fatimid Caliphate and served as its capital city. At the time, Cairo was second only to Baghdad, capital of the rival Abbasid Caliphate. After the fall of Baghdad, however, Cairo overtook it as the largest city in the Mediterranean region until the early modern period.

Inventions in medieval Islam covers the inventions developed in the medieval Islamic world, a region that extended from Al-Andalus and Africa in the west to the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia in the east. The timeline of Islamic science and engineering covers the general development of science and technology in the Islamic world.

ee also

* List of Egypt-related topics
* Egyptian chronology
* History of ancient Egypt
* History of technology
* Egyptian mathematics
* History of science in early cultures
* Astrology and astronomy
* Archaeoastronomy
* Graham Hancock
* Imhotep
* Hero of Alexandria

Notes

References

* Leslie C. Kaplan, "Technology of Ancient Egypt". 2004, 24 pages. ISBN 0823967859
* Denys Allen Stocks "Experiments in Egyptian Archaeology: Stoneworking Technology in Ancient Egypt". Routledge, 2003. 336 pages. ISBN 0415306647
* Katheryn A. Bard" Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt By Katheryn A. Bard". Routledge, 1999. 968 pages. ISBN 0415185890
* R. J. Forbes, "Studies in Ancient Technology". 1966.
* Örjan Wikander, "Handbook of Ancient Water Technology". 2000.
* Patricia Blackwell Gary and Richard Talcott, "Stargazing in Ancient Egypt," Astronomy, June 2006, pp. 62-67.
* Evans, James. "The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy". New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
* Pannekoek, A. "A History of Astronomy". New York: Dover, 1961.
* Parker, Richard A. "Egyptian Astronomy, Astrology, and Calendrical Reckoning." "Dictionary of Scientific Biography" 15:706-727.
* Tomkins, Peter. "Secrets of the Great Pyramid". With an appendix by Livio Catullo Stecchini. New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1971.
* Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Religion. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
* Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians Volume 1 of 2. New York: Dover Publications, 1969 (original in 1904).

Further reading

* David, Rosalie A., H.G.M. Edwards and D.W. Farwell. Raman Spectroscopic Analysis of Ancient Egyptian Pigments. Archaeometry 43, 4 (2001) 461-473
* Earl, Bryan. Tin Smelting at the Oriental Institute. The Oriental Institute News and Notes No. 146. Summer 1995.
* Gourdin, W.H. and W.D. Kingery. 1975. the Beginnings of Pyrotechnology: Neolithic and Egyptian Lime Plaster. Journal of Field Archaeology.
* Lucas, Alfred. 1962. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, 4th Edition. London: Edward Arnold Publishers.
* Meyer, Carol. Bir Umm Fawakhir: Insights into Ancient Egyptian Mining. JOM 49 (3) (1997) 64-68.
* Nicholson, Paul T. and Ian Shaw, eds. 2000. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. University Press, Cambridge.
* Pulak, C. A: The Uluburun Shipwreck: An Overview. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 27 (1998) 188-224.
* Scheel, Bernd. 1989. Egyptian Metalworking and Tools. Haverfordwest, Great Britain: Shire Publications Ltd.
* Shaw, Ian. Editor. 2000. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Shortland, A.J. Evaporites of the Wadi Natrun: Seasonal and Annual Variation and its Implication for Ancient Exploitation. Archaeometry 46, 4 (2004) 497-516.
*Davis, Virginia. “Mines and Quarries of Ancient Egypt, an Introduction” [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/minesandquarries1.htm Online article]
*Institutt for Arkeologi, Kunsthistorie og Konservering website, in English at [http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskning/sarc/iakh/lithic/LEV/Lev.html]

External links

* [http://egipto.com/obeliscos/obeliskindex.html History of the Egyptian obelisks] , egipto.com