Black Athena

"Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization" is a work by Martin Bernal. It expounds a hypothesis that ancient Greece, and hence Western civilization, derived much of its cultural roots from Afroasiatic (Egyptian and Phoenician) cultures. The work was published in three volumes:

*Volume I, "The Fabrication of Ancient Greece 1785-1985" (1987)
*Volume II, "The Archaeological and Documentary Evidence" (1991)
*Volume III, "The Linguistic Evidence" (2006)

Bernal's first subject of study was Chinese language (he obtained first class honours in the University of Cambridge Oriental tripos). He then specialized in modern Chinese history, but his early studies of Chinese may explain why in "Black Athena", he takes a language-oriented approach to understanding cultural influences, and rejects to some degree archaeological evidence and historical accounts.

Conflicting views

According to Bernal, there are two main theories of the origin of Greek civilization: the "Aryan model" and the "Ancient model". The "Aryan model" is that the early settlement of Greece was from the north-west (i.e. central Europe) which he further sub-divides into two versions: "Strong" and "Weak". The "Strong theory" holds that the area of Greece was uninhabited before the arrival of the Aryans. The "Weak theory" holds that the area had natives before the Aryans arrived.

Bernal rejects the Aryan theory of colonization based on lack of evidence. He cites Greek historians to prove that the Greeks of the time of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle believed that Phoenician civilization colonized Greece. Based on this, he creates a new theory of Greek origins, namely, that Greece was colonized by northern invaders mixing with a colony established by Phoenicia.

Origins of research

Going on to explain the historiography of Egypt and North Africa, he shows the reader many examples of prominent European leaders expressing interest or open admiration of Egypt and the Near East.

While it is widely accepted that the Classical Greek language arose from the Proto-Greek language with influences from the Anatolian languages that were spoken nearby, and the culture is assumed to have developed from a comparable amalgamation of elements, Bernal emphasizes African elements in Ancient Near Eastern culture, and the denunciation of the alleged Eurocentrism of 19th and 20th century research, including the very slogan "Ex Oriente Lux" of Orientalists which, according to Bernal, betrays "the Western appropriation of ancient Near Eastern culture for the sake of its own development" (p. 423). The book had enormous impact on African American Afrocentrist movements, because of its de-centering impact on classical images of the West.

Bernal proposes that Greek evolved from the contact between an Indo-European language and culturally influential Egyptian and Semitic languages. He cites as examples many Egyptian or Semitic roots for Greek words, including some words with currently accepted Indo-European etymologies. Bernal places the introduction of the Greek alphabet (unattested before 750 BC) between 1800 and 1400 BC, and the poet Hesiod in the tenth century.

Reception

"Black Athena" ignited a furious debate in the academic community. [e.g. Mary R. Lefkowitz &Guy M. Rogers, Black Athena Revisted, 1996; Lefkowitz, Not Out of Africa, 1996.] While most reviewers admitted that studies of the origin of Greek civilization were tainted by a foundation of 19th century racism, many excoriated Bernal for the admittedly speculative nature of his hypothesis and for working far outside his field of expertise.fact|date=January 2008 Some subsequent writers have been heavily critical of what they consider to be Bernal's confusion of culture, ethnicity and race, and his unsystematic and linguistically incompetent handling of etymologies. Bernal in turn accuses academe of deliberately and continually obscuring the importance of African and Semitic civilizations since the 19th century. In 2003, the Intercollegiate Studies Institute listed "Black Athena" as one of the worst books of the twentieth century.

The theories of the Italian philologist Giovanni Semerano could be seen as supporting Bernal's thesis.

Editions of "Black Athena"

Volume 1

*"Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization" Rutgers University Press (1987) ISBN 0-8135-1277-8)

*"Black Athena: Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilization: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece, 1785-1985" Vol 1 (Paperback) Vintage; New Ed edition (21 Nov 1991) ISBN 0-0998-8780-0 ISBN 978-0099887805

*"Black Athena: Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilization: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece, 1785-1985" Vol 1 (Paperback) Free Association Books (29 Nov 2004) ISBN 0-9469-6056-9 ISBN 978-0946960569

Volume 2

*"Black Athena: Afro-Asiatic Roots of Classical Civilization: The Archaeological and Documentary Evidence" Vol 2 (Paperback) Publisher: Free Association Books (1 Jan 1991) ISBN 1-8534-3054-4 ISBN 978-1853430541

*"Black Athena: the Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization" Vol 2 (Hardcover) Rutgers University Press (Jul 1991) ISBN 0-8135-1584-X ISBN 978-0813515847

Volume 3

*"Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, Volume III: The Linguistic Evidence" Vol 3 (Hardcover) Rutgers University Press (25 Nov 2006) ISBN 0-8135-3655-3 ISBN 978-0813536552

*"Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization, Volume III: The Linguistic Evidence" Free Association Books (1 Feb 2006) ISBN 1-8534-3799-9 ISBN 978-1853437991

Books and articles about "Black Athena"

*Black Athena 2: History without Rules. Robert L. Pounder The American Historical Review, Vol. 97, No. 2 (Apr., 1992), pp. 461-464 Doi|10.2307/2165728.
* Mary R. Lefkowitz, " Not Out of Africa: How Afrocentrism Became an Excuse to Teach Myth As History", 1997, ISBN 046509838X ISBN 978-0465098385
* Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.), "Black Athena Revisited", 1996., ISBN 0807845558 ISBN 978-0807845554
* Mary R. Lefkowitz, "History Lesson", 2008, ISBN 030012659X ISBN 978-0300126594
* Martin Bernal, "Black Athena Writes Back: Martin Bernal Responds to His Critics", 2001.
* Walter Slack, "White Athena: The Afrocentrist Theft of Greek Civilization", 2006, ISBN 0595393209 ISBN 978-0595393206
* Jacques Berlinerblau, "Heresy in the University: The Black Athena Controversy and the Responsibilities of American Intellectuals", 1999, ISBN 0813525888 ISBN 978-0813525884

Bernal has said that he, if not his publisher, always preferred the title "African Athena".{Quoted in 'Arethusa' an academic journal} In the TV documentary "Black Athena," (Channel 4 UK) Bernal denies this. He also denies this in print in "Black Athena Writes Back," 2001 maintaining he had lectured with this title before the book was written and he maintains his individual intent to use the word Black not African for the title.

elected publications

What follows is a is list of relevant publications listed on the now inactive www.blackathena.com website.

*1976 "Chinese Socialism Before 1907", Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
*1987 "Black Athena The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization 1: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece 1785-1985". London: Free Association Books. and New Brunswick: Rutgers University.
*1988 "The British Utilitarians, Imperialism and the Fall of the Ancient Model," "Culture and History" 3: 98-127.
*1989 "Classics in Crisis: An Outsider's View In," "Classics: A Discipline and Profession in Crisis?" Ed. P. Culham and L. Edmunds. University Press of America. Pp. 67-76.
*"Black Athena and the APA." in "The Challenge of Black Athena" Special issue of "Arethusa". Pp.17-37.
*1990 "Responses to Critical Reviews of "Black Athena: Volume I": in the "Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology" 3/1:111- 137.
*"Cadmean Letters: The Westward Diffusion of The Semitic Alphabet Before 1400 B.C." Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.
*1991 "Black Athena 2: The Archaeological and Documentary Evidence". London, Free Association Books; New Brunswick: Rutgers University.
*1992 "Animadversions on the Origins of Western Science," "Isis" 83, 4 (December): 596-607.
*1993 "Response", to "Dialogue: Martin Bernal's Black Athena." "Journal of Women's History" 4.3, (Winter):119-135.
*"Phoenician Politics and Egyptian Justice in Ancient Greece." in Kurt Raaflaub ed. "Anfänge politischen Denkens in der Antike: nahöstliochen Kulturen und die Griechen. Schriften des Historischen Kollegs". Kolloquien 24. München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag. Pp.241-252.
*"Reply to L. A. Trittle," "Liverpool Classical Monthly" 18.2: whole issue.
*1994 "Response to Robert Palter," "History of Science" 32:1-20.
*1995 "Race, Class and Gender in the Formation of The Aryan Model of Greek Origins." "South Atlantic Quarterly". 94.4. (Fall): 987-1008.
*"Politically Correct: Mythologies of Neo-Conservatism in the American Academy," "New Political Science". 38/39:17-28.
*1997 "Responses to Black Athena." "Black Athena: Ten Years After". Special edition of "Talanta" vols. 28 and 29. pp.65-99, 165-173 and 209-219.
*2005 "Martin Bernal," by Kinohi Nishikawa. "The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Literature". Ed. Hans Ostrom and J. David Macey, Jr. 5 vols. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 114-15.
* Journal of Arethusa.

External links

* [http://www.depts.drew.edu/classics/links/bernal.html Ancient Histories and Modern Humanities] by John R. Lenz (Drew University)
* [http://www.geocities.com/warriorvase/with.htm With Black Athena into the third millennium CE?] by Wim van Binsbergen
* [http://www.worldagesarchive.com/Individual%20Web%20Pages/BlackAthena.html The Black Athena Debate] from [http://www.worldagesarchive.com/ The World Ages Archive] , a website operated by Meres J. Weche, who says "The aim of the World Ages Archive is to provide an extensive web-based reference for the study of ancient chronological revisionist, catastrophist..."

See also

*Afrocentrism
*Pre-Greek substrate