Asian martial arts (origins)

Asian martial arts (origins)

Theories of the origins of Asian martial arts range from the highly diffusionist to models which show greater recognition of independent invention.

Contents

India

The Nataraja dance pose.

Around the 3rd century BC, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These elements of yoga, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.[1][2][3][4][not in citation given]

Indian martial arts were an important influence in the development of a number of modern Asian martial arts, particularly within the Indian cultural sphere (countries outside India influenced by Indian culture and religion) of Southeast Asia. Examples include Indo-Malay silat,[5] Burmese banshay, naban and bando,[6] Filipino escrima and kali,[7] Thai krabi krabong[8] and Cambodian bokator.

Indian martial arts also lightly influenced[clarification needed] the various forms of Indochinese kickboxing, namely muay Thai from Thailand, tomoi from Malaysia, muay Lao from Laos, pradal serey from Cambodia and lethwei from Myanmar.[8]

China

There is a theory which claims Indian martial arts spread to China via the transmission of Buddhism in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era, and thus influenced Shaolinquan. However there is record of Chinese martial arts as early as the Qin Dynasty lasting from 221 to 207 BCE.

Elements from Indian philosophy, like the Nāga, Rakshasa, and the fierce Yaksha were modified and converted into the protectors of Dharma; these mythical figures from the Dharmic religions figure prominently in Shaolin boxing, Chang boxing and staff fighting.[9] The religious figures from Dharmic religions also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts.[10] Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the Mudra hand positions used in Hinduism and Buddhism, both of which derived from India.[11] The 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian kalaripayat.[12][13]

Proponents who support the theory commonly cite a popular legend about a prince-turned-Buddhist monk named Bodhidharma (circa 5th century) who is said to have imparted his martial arts knowledge to the monks of the Shaolin Monastery, thereby founding Shaolinquan.[14] According to Wong Kiew Kit, the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense."[15] Chinese records do not agree with the presented time line, however. Various documents from the 6th and 7th centuries place him in locations around Shaolin, but never at the monastery itself. It is not until the publishing of the Precious Record of the Darma's Transmission (Chuanfa baoji) (c. 710) that Bodhidharma is said to have actually spent time in Shaolin.[16]

The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is traceable to the Yi Jin Jing, though its authenticity has been discredited by several historians such as Tang Hao,[17] Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi.[18] This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his Zhongguo wushu shi as follows:

As for the "Yi Jin Jing" (Muscle Changing Classic), a spurious text attributed to Bodhidharma and included in the legend of his transmitting martial arts at the temple, it was written in the Ming dynasty, in 1624 CE, by the Daoist priest Zining of Mt. Tiantai, and falsely attributed to Bodhidharma. Forged prefaces, attributed to the Tang general Li Jing and the Southern Song general Niu Gao were written. They say that, after Bodhidharma faced the wall for nine years at Shaolin temple, he left behind an iron chest; when the monks opened this chest they found the two books Xi Sui Jing (Marrow Washing Classic) and Yi Jin Jing within. The first book was taken by his disciple Huike, and disappeared; as for the second, "the monks selfishly coveted it, practicing the skills therein, falling into heterodox ways, and losing the correct purpose of cultivating the Real. The Shaolin monks have made some fame for themselves through their fighting skill; this is all due to having obtained this manuscript." Based on this, Bodhidharma was claimed to be the ancestor of Shaolin martial arts. This manuscript is full of errors, absurdities and fantastic claims; it cannot be taken as a legitimate source.[19]

The oldest known available copy was published in 1827[18] and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624.[19] According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods, mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts only becomes widespread as a result of the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.[20]

Main gate of the Shaolin temple in Henan.

Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma.[21] None of the canonical Buddhist sources associates Bodhidharma with martial arts whereas they do note Sengchou's skill with the tin staff.[22]

The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of Chang'an during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497.[23] Monks came from the ranks of the population among whom the martial arts were widely practiced prior to the introduction of Buddhism.[23] Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.[23]

In addition, the Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, the Bibliographies in the Book of the Han Dynasty and the Records of the Grand Historian all document the existence of martial arts in China before Bodhidharma. The martial arts Shuāi Jiāo and Sun Bin Quan, to name two, predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries.[24]

Japan

The frescro described by Doshin So.

The Samurai class in Japan made Zen their way of life following their encounter with the martial-arts-oriented Zen Rinzai School introduced to Japan by Eisai in the 12th century.[citation needed]

Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, was convinced that a Shaolin temple fresco depicted Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.[25]

Korea

Wrestling, called ssireum, is the oldest form of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, it was also popular among villagers during festivals. The ancient Koreans didn't develope a comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat partly owing to their preference for bows and arrows, and also because of the late arrival of steel in Korea.[26] It appears that during the Goguryeo dynasty, (37 BC – 668) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced.

In 1593, Korea received help from China to win back Pyongyang from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled Ji Xiao Xin Shu (紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist Qi Jiguang. King Seonjo (1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the Muyejebo (무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the Muyesinbo (Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).[27]

In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated Muyedobotongji (Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to taekyeon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on.

Vietnam

Flying scissors to the neck. The opponent is forced to the ground with a twist of the body.

Vietnamese martial arts are influenced by efforts to defend the country from foreign threats and also by the people whom Vietnam conquered (Champa). The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (dynasties), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts.

The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against . In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves in national disputes.[citation needed]

Purported foreign influence

Todd & Webb (2005:21) claims that "when Alexander the Great expanded his empire to stretch as far as India, he may have sown the seeds of modern Asian martial arts.",[28] but no evidence exists to support this claim. Macedonians were not very appreciative of combat sports and Alexander himself felt pankration to be unsuitable for war, rejecting it in favour of military strategy.[29] As it is based entirely on assumptions, this theory is popular primarily among martial artists of Greek descent but is not taken seriously by any historians.[29] Furthermore, accounts of combat in Indian epic poetry, pre-date Alexander the Great. Building on the work of Laughlin (1956, 1961), Rudgley (2000) argues that the martial arts of the Chinese, Japanese and Aleut peoples, Mongolian wrestling all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common Mongoloid ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia."[30][31][32] thereby also pre-dating alleged European influence.

References

  1. ^ J. R. Svinth (2002). A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports. Electronic Journals of Martial Arts and Sciences.
  2. ^ The Bodhisattva warriors : the origin, inner philosophy, history, and symbolism of the Buddhist martial art within India and China by Terence Dukes (1994). Publisher: Yorkindo Beach, Me. ISBN 0877287856
  3. ^ The Spiritual Legacy of Shaolin Temple: Buddhism, Daoism, and the Energetic Arts - Page 78 by Andy James. Published 2004. Wisdom Publications. 179 pages. ISBN 0861713524
  4. ^ A Historical Perspective: The Origins of Kwon Bup, Chuan Fa, Kempo, Kuntao by Ian A. Cyrus, 9th Dan, Headmaster, Choson Kwon Bup International Chosondo Federation
  5. ^ Draeger, Donn F. (1992). Weapons and Fighting Arts of Indonesia. pg 23. Tuttle Publishing
  6. ^ Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.
  7. ^ Mark V. Wiley (1994). Filipino Martial Arts: Serrada Escrima pg21. Tuttle Publishing
  8. ^ a b Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. Kodansha International.
  9. ^ Wells, Marnix, and Naizhou Chang. Scholar Boxer: Chang Naizhou's Theory of Internal Martial Arts and the Evolution of Taijiquan. Berkeley, Calif: North Atlantic Books, 2004, p. 23
  10. ^ Wells, Scholar Boxer, p. 200
  11. ^ Johnson, Nathan J. Barefoot Zen: The Shaolin Roots of Kung Fu and Karate. York Beach, Me: S. Weiser, 2000, p. 48
  12. ^ Subramaniam Phd., P., (general editors) Dr. Shu Hikosaka, Asst. Prof. Norinaga Shimizu, & Dr. G. John Samuel, (translator) Dr. M. Radhika (1994). Varma Cuttiram வர்ம சுத்திரம்: A Tamil Text on Martial Art from Palm-Leaf Manuscript. Madras: Institute of Asian Studies. pp. 90 & 91. 
  13. ^ Reid Phd., Howard, Michael Croucher (1991). The Way of the Warrior: The Paradox of the Martial Arts. New York: Outlook Press. pp. 58–85. ISBN 0879514337. 
  14. ^ Cephas, Shawn (Winter 1994). "The Root of Warrior Priests in the Martial Arts". Kungfu Magazine. 
  15. ^ Wong, Kiew Kit. The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense Health and Enlightenment. Tuttle martial arts. Boston, Mass: Tuttle, 2002, p. 13
  16. ^ Meir Shahar, The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and the Chinese Martial Arts. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2008, p. 13
  17. ^ Tang Hao 唐豪 (1968) [1930] (in Chinese). Shàolín Wǔdāng kǎo 少林武當考. Hong Kong 香港: Qílín tushu. 
  18. ^ a b Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 (1986) (in Chinese). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略. Taipei 臺北: Danqing tushu. 
  19. ^ a b Lin, Boyuan (1996) (in Chinese). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐ 中國武術史. Taipei 臺北: Wǔzhōu chūbǎnshè 五洲出版社. pp. 182–183. 
  20. ^ Henning, Stanley (1994). "Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan" (PDF). Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii 2 (3): 1–7. http://seinenkai.com/articles/henning/il&t.pdf .
  21. ^ Canzonieri, Salvatore (February–March 1998). "History of Chinese Martial Arts: Jin Dynasty to the Period of Disunity". Han Wei Wushu 3 (9). 
  22. ^ Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō 50.553c–554a,559b
  23. ^ a b c Henning, Stanley (1999b). "Martial Arts Myths of Shaolin Monastery, Part I: The Giant with the Flaming Staff". Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association of Hawaii 5 (1). 
  24. ^ Canzonieri, Salvatore. "The Emergence of the Chinese Martial Arts". Han Wei Wushu (23). 
  25. ^ Cox, Rupert A. (2003). Zen Arts: An Anthropological Study of the Culture of Anesthetics Form in Japan. RoutledgeCurzon in association with the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. p. 157. ISBN 0700714758. 
  26. ^ Draeger, Donn F. (1981). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts pg 155. Kodansha International.
  27. ^ Kim, Wee-hyun. "Muyedobo T'ongji: Illustrated Survey of the Martial arts." Korea Journal 26:8 (August 1986): 42-54.
  28. ^ Todd, Tank; Webb, James (2005). Military Combative Masters of the 20th Century 
  29. ^ a b Kostas Dervenis and Nektarios Lykiardopoulos (2007). The Martial Arts Of Ancient Greece. Destiny Books. ISBN 1594771928. 
  30. ^ Rudgley, Richard (2000) [1999]. The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Simon & Schuster. [unreliable source?]
  31. ^ Laughlin, William S. (1961). "Acquisition of Anatomical Knowledge by Ancient Man". In Washburn, Sherwood L. Social Life of Early Man. London: Routledge. 2004. pp. 150–175 .
  32. ^ Marsh, Gordon H.; Laughlin, William S. (1956). "Human Anatomical Knowledge among the Aleutian Islanders". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 12 (1): pp. 38–78 ,

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