Board of Fortifications

Several boards have been appointed by US presidents or Congress to evaluate the US defensive fortifications, primarily coastal defenses near strategically important harbors on the US shores, its territories, and its protectorates.

Endicott Board

In 1885 US President Grover Cleveland appointed a joint army, navy and civilian board, headed by Secretary of War William Crowninshield Endicott, known as the Board of Fortifications. The findings of the board illustrated a grim picture of existing defenses in its 1886 report and recommended a massive $127 million construction program of breech-loading cannons, mortars, floating batteries, and submarine mines for some 29 locations on the US coast-line.

Prior efforts at harbor defense construction had ceased in the 1870s. Since that time the design and construction of heavy ordnance advanced rapidly, including the development of superior breech-loading and longer-ranged cannon, making the US harbor defenses obsolete. In 1883, the navy had begun a new construction program with an emphasis on offensive rather than defensive warships. These factors combined to create a need for improved coastal defense systems.

The Endicott Board's recommendations would lead to a large scale modernization program of harbor and coastal defenses in the United States, especially the construction of modern reinforced concrete fortifications and the installation of large breech-loading artillery and mortar batteries, up to 12-inch in caliber. Electrically controlled mine fields were a critical component of the defense, and smaller guns were also employed to protect the mine fields from minesweeping vessels.

The fortifications constructed as part of this program were a radical departure from traditional masonry forts concealing massed batteries of cannon that had dominated harbor defense for most the 19th century. Instead, smaller batteries of up to four large caliber rifled guns were installed in well-constructed emplacements hidden behind earth covered concrete parapets. Most long-range large-caliber rifles were mounted on disappearing carriages that would allow a gun to be raised to fire, but otherwise lowered behind a a protective bunker. Some large guns and most smaller guns were mounted on less expensive barbettes or pedastals. (see table below).

Taft Board

In 1905, after the experiences of the Spanish-American War, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a new board, under secretary of war William Howard Taft. They updated some standards and reviewed the progress on the Endicott board's program. Most of the changes recommended by this board were technical; such as adding more searchlights, electrification (lighting, communications, and projectile handling), and a more sophisticated optical aiming techniques. The board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain: Cuba and the Philippines, as well as Hawaii, and a few other sites. Defenses in Panama were authorized by the Spooner Act of 1902. The Taft program fortifications differed slightly in battery construction and had fewer numbers of guns at a given location than those of the Endicott program.

WWI and later

By the time of the First World War many of the Endicott and Taft era forts had become obsolete due to the increased range and accuracy of naval weaponry and the advent of aircraft. Subsequent fortifications included larger weapons up to 16-inch cannon with concealment and protection from the air. But by WWII coastal defense was increasingly reliant on aircraft.

References

* American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide, Edited by Mark A. Berhow, 2nd edition, CDSG Press 2004
* American Coastal Defences 1885-1950 by Terrance McGovern & Bolling Smith, Osprey Publishing 2006
* [http://www.nps.gov/archive/prsf/coast_defense/harbor_defense_sf/index.htm Harbor Defense of San Francisco] US Park Service
* [http://www.cdsg.org/cdsghis4.htm United States Seacoast Defense Construction 1781-1948: a Brief History] Coastal Defense Study Group website

Table of guns by caliber and carriage types

The following is summarized from American Seacoast Defenses, edited by Mark Berhow, with pages referenced from the rows. The units column reflects the lower of the original emplacements or the carriages built, since some emplacements were not armed and some carriages not used. Carriage models after 1905 are not included in the Endicott Era table.

{|Class="wikitable" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"}!bgcolor="efefef"|Model!bgcolor="efefef"|Carriage!bgcolor="efefef"|Tube!bgcolor="efefef"|Caliber!bgcolor="efefef"|Units!bgcolor="efefef"|Page
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M1901||disappearing||rifle||12 inch||13||150
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M1897||disappearing||rifle||12 inch||35||148
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M1897||Altered||rifle||12 inch||3||146
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M1896||Mortar||Mortar||12 inch||308||140
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M1896||disappearing||rifle||12 inch||27||138
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M1892||disappearing||rifle||12 inch||28||136
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M1891||Mortar||Mortar||12 inch||86||134
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M1888||lift||rifle||12 inch||2||130
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M1901||disappearing||rifle||10 inch||16||128
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M1896||disappearing ARF||rifle||10 inch||3||126
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M1896||disappearing||rifle||10 inch||74||124
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M1894||disappearing||rifle||10 inch||35||122
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M1893||barbette||rifle||10 inch||9||120
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M1896||disappearing||rifle||8 inch||38||110
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M1894||disappearing||rifle||8 inch||26||108
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M1892||barbette||rifle||8 inch||9||106
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M1905||disappearing||rifle||6 inch||33||100
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M1903||disappearing||rifle||6 inch||90||98
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M1900||pedestal||rifle||6 inch||44||96
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M1898||disappearing||rifle||6 inch||29||94
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Armstrong||pedestal||rifle||6 inch||8||92
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M1903||pedestal||rifle||5 inch||20||90
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M1896||pilar||rifle||5 inch||32||88
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Armstrong||pedestal||rifle||4.72 inch||34||86
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Army/Navy||pedestal||rifle||4 inch||4||84
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M1903||pedestal||rifle||3 inch||101||74
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M1902||pedestal||rifle||3 inch||60||72
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M1898||parapet||rifle||3 inch||111||70
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