Gastraphetes

The gastraphetes (from Ancient Greek "γαστραφέτης", English translation: "belly-bow") was a hand-held crossbow used by the Ancient Greeks.Duncan Campbell: "Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC-AD 363", Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2003, ISBN 1841766348, p.3ff.] Josiah Ober: "Early Artillery Towers: Messenia, Boiotia, Attica, Megarid", "American Journal of Archaeology", Vol. 91, No. 4. (1987), S. 569-604 (569)] Barton C. Hacker: “Greek Catapults and Catapult Technology: Science, Technology, and War in the Ancient World”, "Technology and Culture", Vol. 9, No. 1. (1968), p.37] [M.J.T. Lewis: "When was Biton?", "Mnemosyne", Vol. 52, No. 2 (1999), pp. 159-168 (159)] [L. Sprague de Camp: "Master Gunner Apollonios", "Technology and Culture", Vol. 2, No. 3 (1961), pp. 240-244 (241)] It was described in the first century AD by the Greek author Heron of Alexandria in his work "Belopoeica" (Ancient Greek "Βελοποιικά", English translation: "On Catapult-making"), which draws on an earlier account of the famous Greek engineer Ctesibius (fl. 285–222 BC). Heron identifies the gastraphetes as the forerunner of the later catapult, which places its invention some unknown time prior to 421 BC. [Hans Michael Schellenberg: [http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/volltexte/2006/3642/pdf/Schellenberg.pdf "Diodor von Sizilien 14,42,1 und die Erfindung der Artillerie im Mittelmeerraum"] , "Frankfurter Elektronische Rundschau zur Altertumskunde", Vol. 3 (2006), pp.14-23 (18f.)]

Description

A fairly detailed description and drawing of the gastraphetes appears in Heron's "Belopoeica", drawn from the account by the 3rd century BC engineer and inventor Ctesibius. The weapon was powered by a composite bow. It was cocked by resting the stomach in a concavity at the rear of the stock and pressing down with all strength. In this way considerably more energy can be summoned up than by using only one arm of the archer as in the hand-bow. There are no attestations through pictures or archaeological finds, but the description by Heron is detailed enough to have allowed modern reconstructions to be made. According to some authors, the dimensions of the "gastraphetes" may have involved some kind of prop.

A larger version of the gastraphetes were the oxybeles, which were used in siege warfare. These were later supplanted by the early ballistae that later also developed into smaller versions supplanting also the gastraphetes.

Date

According to a long dominant view expressed by E. W. Marsden, the gastraphetes was invented in 399 BC by a team of Greek craftsmen assembled by the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse. [E. W. Marsden: "Greek and Roman artillery, historical development", Oxford: Clarendon, 1969, p.49] However, recent scholarship has pointed out that the historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC) actually did not mention the gastraphetes, but was referring to the invention of the "katapeltikon", a mechanical arrow firing catapult. [Diodorus Siculus 14.42.1] Since the Greek scholar Hero of Alexandria (fl. 1st c. AD) states in his "Belopoeica" that stand-mounted mechanical artillery such as the "katapeltikon" was inspired by the earlier hand-held gastraphetes, the invention of handheld crossbows into Greek warfare must have thus occurred some unknown time before 399 BC. [Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, Sarah B. Pomeroy, and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts (1999). "Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History". Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1950-9742-4, p. 366]

The terminus ante quem may be more precisely defined as being before 421 BC, since another Greek author, Biton (fl. 2nd c. BC), whose reliability has been positively reevaluated by recent scholarship, [M.J.T. Lewis: "When was Biton?", "Mnemosyne", Vol. 52, No. 2 (1999), pp. 159-168] credits two advanced forms of the gastraphetes to a certain Zopyros. This Zopyros was probably an Pythagorean engineer from southern Italy. [Peter Kingsley: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pythagoreanism/ "Ancient Philosophy, Mystery and Magic"] , Clarendon Press, Oxford 1995, p.150ff.] [Lewis established a lower date of no later than the mid-fourth century (M.J.T. Lewis: "When was Biton?", "Mnemosyne", Vol. 52, No. 2 (1999), pp. 159-168 (160)). Same de Camp (L. Sprague de Camp: "Master Gunner Apollonios", "Technology and Culture", Vol. 2, No. 3 (1961), pp. 240-244 (241)] He may have designed his stand-mounted bow-machines on the occasion of the sieges of Cumae and Milet between 421 BC and 401 BC, thus marking the date by which the the archetypical gastraphetes must have already been known. [Biton 65.1-67.4 & 61.12-65.1] Duncan Campbell: "Greek and Roman Artillery 399 BC-AD 363", Osprey Publishing, Oxford 2003, ISBN 1841766348, p.3 & 5]

Other ancient crossbows

Besides the "gastraphetes", the ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is a subject of continuing scholarly debate.
*Greek and Roman authors like Vegetius note repeatedly the use of arrow firing weapons such as "arcuballista" and "manuballista" respectively "cheiroballistra". While most scholars agree that one or more of these terms refer to handheld mechanical weapons, there exist disagreement whether these were flexion bows or torsion powered like the recent Xanten find. [Romanhideout.com: [http://www.romanhideout.com/news/2005/20050224.asp Manuballista found near Xanten] ]
*The Roman commander Arrian (ca. 86 - after 146) records in his "Tactica" Roman cavalry training for firing some mechanical handheld weapon from horseback. [Arrian Tact. 43.1] [D. Baatz: "Katapulte und mechanische Handwaffen des spätrömischen Heeres", "JRMES", Vol. 10 (1999), pp.5-19 (11-15)] [Duncan Campbell: "Auxiliary Artillery Revisited", "Bonner Jahrbücher", Vol. 186 (1986), pp. 117-132]
*Sculptural reliefs from Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. The specimen are remarkably similar to the later medieval crossbow, including the typical nut lock. [Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques et romaines: [http://dagr.univ-tlse2.fr/sdx/dagr/feuilleter.xsp?tome=1&partie=1&numPage=400&filtre=arbal%C3%A8te%20&nomEntree=ARCUBALLISTA Arcuballista, Manuballista] ]

Modern culture

Gastraphetes appears in the Square Enix tactical RPG Final Fantasy Tactics. It is mistranslated as Gastrafitis and is the strongest crossbow in the game. It appears in Final Fantasy XII for PS2 once again as the strongest crossbow.

In Microsoft's Age of Mythology, Gastraphetes appear as a unit trainable only by Hades. They wield a crossbow and are very powerful, having few weaknesses. A Gastraphetes also appears in the MMORPG Lineage 2. However, it is not a crossbow in the game.

References

Sources

*E. W. Marsden: "Greek and Roman artillery, historical development", Oxford: Clarendon, 1969
*H. Diels, E. Schramm, ed. "Herons 'Belopoiika'", (Abhandlungen der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosoph.-hist. Kl. 2.) Berlin: Reimer, 1918, Chapter 7
*J. G. Landels: "Engineering in the Ancient World", London: Chatto & Windus, 1978
* [http://members.lycos.nl/onager/history.html The History of Siege Engines] (Retrieved 7 January 2007)
* [http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/volltexte/2006/3642/pdf/Schellenberg.pdf H.M.Schellenberg: Diodor von Sizilien 14,42,1 und die Erfindung der Artillerie im Mittelmeerraum, in "Frankfurter Elektronische Rundschau zur Altertumskunde", Vol. 3 (2006), p.14-23]
* H.M.Schellenberg: "Anmerkungen zu Heron von Alexandria und seinem Werk über den Geschützbau", in: Schellenberg, H.M. / Hirschmann, V. E./ Krieckhaus, A. (edd.): "A Roman Miscellany. Essays in Honour of Anthony R. Birley on his Seventieth Birthday", Gdansk 2008, pp.92-130

External links

* [http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/war/CatapultTypes.htm Ancient Greek Artillery Technology]
* [http://www.barca.fsnet.co.uk/catapult-arrows.htm Page on ancient catapults, with picture of reconstruction]
* [http://www.frapanthers.com/teachers/white/siege_gallery.htm Reconstructions and Plans of Greek and Roman Artillery]