History of measurement

Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans. Primitive societies needed rudimentary measures for many tasks: constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or bartering food or raw materials.

Earliest known systems

The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BCE, Mature period 2600–1900 BCE) developed a sophisticated system of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations made at the Indus valley sites.Baber, page 23] This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction. Calibration was also Babylonian and Egyptian records and the Bible indicate that length was first measured with the forearm, hand, or finger and that time was measured by the periods of the sun, moon, and other heavenly bodies. When it was necessary to compare the capacities of containers such as gourds or clay or metal vessels, they were filled with plant seeds which were then counted to measure the volumes. When means for weighing were invented, seeds and stones served as standards. For instance, the carat, still used as a unit for gems, was derived from the carob seed.

Present knowledge

Our present knowledge of early weights and measures comes from many sources. Archaeologists have recovered some rather early standards and preserved them in museums.Fact|date=February 2007 The comparison of the dimensions of buildings with the descriptions of contemporary writers is another source of information. An interesting example of this is the comparison of the dimensions of the Greek Parthenon with the description given by Plutarch from which a fairly accurate idea of the size of the Attic foot is obtained. In some cases, we have only plausible theories and we must sometimes select the interpretation to be given to the evidence.

By studying the evidence given by all available sources, and by correlating the relevant facts, we obtain some idea of the origin and development of the units. We find that they have changed more or less gradually with the passing of time in a complex manner because of a great variety of modifying influences. We find the units modified and grouped into measurement systems: the Babylonian system, the Egyptian system, the Phileterian system of the Ptolemaic age, the Olympic system of Greece, the Roman system, and the British system, to mention only a few.

History of units

Units of length

The Egyptian cubit, the Indus Valley units of length referred to above and the Mesopotamian cubit were used in the 3rd millennium BC and are the earliest known units used by ancient peoples to measure length. The measures of length used in ancient India included the dhanus (bow), the krosa (cry, or cow-call) and the jojana (stage).

The common cubit was the length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was divided into the span of the hand (one-half cubit), the palm or width of the hand (one sixth), and the digit or width of the middle finger (one twenty-fourth) and the span or the length between the tip little finger to the tip of the thumb. The Sacred Cubit, which was a standard cubit enhanced by an extra span—thus 7 spans or 28 digits long—was used in constructing buildings and monuments and in surveying in ancient Egypt; it may have been based on an astronomical measurement. [cite book
last = Heath
first = Robin
authorlink =
coauthors = Mitchell, John
title = The Lost Science of Measuring the Earth
publisher = Adventures Unlimited Press
date = 2006
location = Kempton, IL
pages = p15
url =
doi =
id =
isbn =1931882509 ] The inch, foot, and yard evolved from these units through a complicated transformation not yet fully understood. Some believe they evolved from cubic measures; others believe they were simple proportions or multiples of the cubit. In whichever case, the Greeks and Romans inherited the foot from the Egyptians. The Roman foot (~296 mm) was divided into both 12 "unciae" (inches) (~24.7 mm) and 16 digits (~18.5 mm). The Romans also introduced the "mille passus" (1000 paces) or double steps, the pace being equal to five Roman feet (~1480 mm). The Roman mile of 5000 feet (1480 m) was introduced into England during the occupation. Queen Elizabeth I (reigned from 1558 to 1603) changed, by statute, the mile to 5280 feet (~1609 m) or 8 furlongs, a furlong being 40 rod (unit)s (~201 m) of 5.5 yards (~5.03 m)each.

The introduction of the yard (0.9144 m) as a unit of length came later, but its origin is not definitely known. Some believe the origin was the double cubit, others believe that it originated from cubic measure. Whatever its origin, the early yard was divided by the binary method into 2, 4, 8, and 16 parts called the half-yard, span, finger, and nail. The association of the yard with the "gird" or circumference of a person's waist or with the distance from the tip of the nose to the end of the thumb of King Henry I (reigned 1100 - 1135) are probably standardizing actions, since several yards were in use in Britain.There were also Rods, Poles and Perches for measurements of length. The following table lists the equivalents. Length12 lines = 1 inch12 inches = 1 foot3 feet = 1 yard1760 yards = 1 mile36 inches = 1 yard440 yards = quarter mile880 yards = half mile 100 links = 1 chain10 chains = 1 furlong8 furlongs = 1 mile4 inches = 1 hand22 yards = 1 chain5.5 yards = 1 rod, pole or perch4 poles = 1 chain40 poles = 1 furlong

Typographical units

The point, which is a unit for measuring print type, is recent. It originated with Pierre Simon Fournier in 1737. It was modified and developed by the Didot brothers, Francois Ambroise and Pierre Francois, in 1755. The point was first used in the United States in 1878 by a Chicago type foundry (Marder, Luse, and Company). Since 1886, a point has been exactly 0.3514598 millimeters, or 1/72.27 inch.

The pica in any of several related systems measures 12 points.

Units of mass

The grain was the earliest unit of mass and is the smallest unit in the apothecary, avoirdupois, Tower, and troy systems. The early unit was a grain of wheat or barleycorn used to weigh the precious metals silver and gold. Larger units preserved in stone standards were developed that were used as both units of mass and of monetary currency. The pound was derived from the mina used by ancient civilizations. A smaller unit was the shekel, and a larger unit was the talent. The magnitude of these units varied from place to place. The Babylonians and Sumerians had a system in which there were 60 shekels in a mina and 60 minas in a talent. The Roman talent consisted of 100 libra (pound) which were smaller in magnitude than the mina. The troy pound (~373.2 g) used in England and the United States for monetary purposes, like the Roman pound, was divided into 12 ounces, but the Roman uncia (ounce) was smaller. The carat is a unit for measuring gemstones that had its origin in the carob seed, which later was standardized at 1/144 ounce and then 0.2 gram.

Goods of commerce were originally traded by number or volume. When weighing of goods began, units of mass based on a volume of grain or water were developed. For example, the talent in some places was approximately equal to the mass of one cubic foot of water. Was this a coincidence or by design? The diverse magnitudes of units having the same name, which still appear today in our dry and liquid measures, could have arisen from the various commodities traded. The larger avoirdupois pound for goods of commerce might have been based on volume of water which has a higher bulk density than grain. For example, the Egyptian hon was a volume unit about 11 per cent larger than a cubic palm and corresponded to one mina of water. It was almost identical in volume to the present U.S. pint (~473 mL).

The stone, quarter, hundredweight, and ton were larger units of mass used in Britain. Today only the stone continues in customary use for measuring personal body weight. The present stone is 14 pounds (~6.35 kg), but an earlier unit appears to have been 16 pounds (~7.25 kg). The other units were multiples of 2, 8, and 160 times the stone, or 28, 112, and 2240 pounds (~12.7 kg, 50.8 kg, 1016 kg), respectively. The hundredweight was approximately equal to two talents. The ton of 2240 pounds is called the "long ton". The "short ton" is equal to 2000 pounds (~907 kg). A tonne (t) is equal to 1000 kg.

Units of time and angle

We can trace the division of the circle into 360 degrees and the day into hours, minutes, and seconds to the Babylonians who had sexagesimal system of numbers. The 360 degrees may have been related to a year of 360 days. Many other systems of measurement divided the day differently; other calendars divided the year differently.

ee also

* Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement
* Megalithic yard
* Pseudoscientific metrology
* Weights and measures
* Airy points
* Imperial unit
* U.S. customary unit
* SI
* Mesures usuelles
* Units of measurement
* Systems of measurement
* History of measurement systems in India
* Winchester measure

References

Sources

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* Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn Section:Book reference after author|Year=2004|Title=Archaeology|Publisher=Thames & Hudson|ID=ISBN 0-500-28441-5
*M. Ismail Marcinkowski, "Measures and Weights in the Islamic World. An English Translation of Professor Walther Hinz's Handbook “Islamische Maße und Gewichte“", with a foreword by Professor Bosworth, F.B.A. Kuala Lumpur, ISTAC, 2002, ISBN 983-9379-27-5. This work is an annotated translation of a work in German by the late German orientalist Walther Hinz, published in the "Handbuch der Orientalistik", erste Abteilung, Ergänzungsband I, Heft 1, Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1970.
* George Bass Section:Book reference after author|Year=2004|Title=A History of Seafaring|Publisher=Walker and Company|ID=ISBN 0-8027-0390-9
* William H McNeil and Jean W Sedlar Section:Book reference after author|Year=1962|Title=The Ancient Near East|Publisher=OUP|ID=
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* Shaika Haya Ali Al Khalifa and Michael Rice Section:Book reference after author|Year=1986|Title=Bahrain through the Ages|Publisher=KPI|ID=ISBN 0-7103-0112-X
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* "Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle", Pierre Larousse, 1874
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* "Scales and Weights: A Historical Outline", Bruno Kisch. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965. [http://www.med.yale.edu/library/historical/streeter.htm Based in part on the Edward C. Streeter collection at Yale Medical Historical Library]